Variants in complement regulatory genes predict age-related macular degeneration

ABSTRACT

Methods for identifying a subject at risk for developing AMD are disclosed, as are kits which can be used to practice the methods. The methods include identifying specific protective or risk polymorphisms or genotypes from the subject&#39;s genetic material, including polymorphisms in the BF, C2 and/or CFH genes. Microarrays and kits for use in these methods are also provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.11/706,074, filed Feb. 13, 2007 now U.S. Pat. No. 8,012,683, whichclaims benefit of U.S. provisional application Nos. 60/772,989 and60/772,688, both filed Feb. 13, 2006, the entire contents of which areincorporated herein by reference.

REFERENCE TO A “SEQUENCE LISTING,” A TABLE, OR A COMPUTER PROGRAMLISTING APPENDIX SUBMITTED AS AN ASCII TEXT FILE

The Sequence Listing written in file 86085-817256_ST25.TXT, created onNov. 30, 2011, 29,604 bytes, machine format IBM-PC, MS-Windows operatingsystem, is hereby incorporated by reference.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made in part by an agency of the US government withUnited States government support pursuant to Grant Nos. EY13435 (RA) andEY11515 (GSH) from the National Institutes of Health and with theassistance of Federal funds from the National Cancer Institute, NationalInstitutes of Health, under Contract No. NO1-CO-124000. The UnitedStates government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

This application relates to methods of predicting an individual'sgenetic susceptibility to age-related macular degeneration.

BACKGROUND

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a degenerative eye diseasethat affects the macula, which is a photoreceptor-rich area of thecentral retina that provides detailed vision. AMD results in a suddenworsening of central vision that usually only leaves peripheral visionintact. AMD is the most common form of irreversible blindness indeveloped countries. The disease typically presents with a decrease incentral vision in one eye, followed within months or years by a similarloss of central vision in the other eye. Clinical signs of the diseaseinclude the presence of deposits (drusen) in the macula.

Despite being a major public health burden, the etiology andpathogenesis of AMD are still poorly understood. Numerous studies haveimplicated inflammation in the pathobiology of AMD (Anderson et al.(2002)Am. J. Ophthalmol. 134:411-31; Hageman et al. (2001) Prog. Retin.Eye Res. 20:705-32; Mullins et al. (2000) Faseb J. 14:835-46; Johnson etal. (2001) Exp. Eye Res. 73:887-96; Crabb et al. (2002) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99:14682-7; Bok, D. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.U.S.A. 102:7053-4). Dysfunction of the complement pathway may inducesignificant bystander damage to macular cells, leading to atrophy,degeneration, and the elaboration of choroidal neovascular membranes,similar to damage that occurs in other complement-mediated diseaseprocesses (Hageman et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.102:7227-32; Morgan and Walport (1991) Immunol. Today 12:301-6;Kinoshita (1991) Immunol. Today 12:291-5; Holers and Thurman (2004) Mol.Immunol. 41:147-52). There may be a strong genetic contribution to thedisease. For example, variants in the FBLN6, ABCA4, and APOE genes havebeen implicated as risk factors. Recently, it was discovered that avariant in the complement factor H gene (CHI), which encodes a majorinhibitor of the alternative complement pathway, is associated withincreased risk of developing AMD (Haines et al. (2005) Science308:419-21; Klein et al. (2005) Science 308:385-9; Edwards et al. (2005)Science 308:421-4; Hageman et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.102:7227-32).

Due to the prevalence of the disease and the limited treatmentavailable, methods for identifying subjects at risk for developing AMDare needed.

SUMMARY

Polymorphisms and genotypes that are protective for age-related maculardegeneration (AMD) have been identified. Methods are provided foridentifying a subject at increased risk for developing AMD. Thesemethods include, but are not limited to, analyzing the subject's factorB (BF) and/or complement component 2 (C2) genes, and determining whetherthe subject has at least one protective polymorphism. Examples of suchprotective polymorphisms include (a) R32Q in BF (rs641153); (b) L9H inBF (rs4151667); (c) IVS 10 in C2 (rs547154); and (d) E318D in C2(rs9332739). Alternatively, the method may be implemented by detecting aprotein variant in the subject. If the subject does not have at leastone protective polymorphism, the subject is at increased risk fordeveloping AMD. In one embodiment of this aspect, further analysis ofthe subject's CFH gene is performed. In some embodiments, the subject'sgenotype may be analyzed at the CFH locus to determine if the subjecthas at least one protective genotype. In one embodiment the subject'sgenotype may be analyzed at either the BF or C2 locus and at the CFHlocus to determine if the subject has at least one protective genotype.As disclosed hereafter, in several instances, it will be informative tolearn whether the subject is homozygous or heterozygous for thepolymorphism.

Examples of protective genotypes include: (a) heterozygous for the R32Qpolymorphism in BF (rs641153); (b) heterozygous for the L9H polymorphismin BF (rs4151667); (c) heterozygous for the IVS 10 polymorphism in C2(rs547154); (d) heterozygous for the E318D polymorphism in C2(rs9332739); (e) homozygous for the delTT polymorphism in CFH; (f)homozygous for the R150R polymorphism in BF (rs1048709); and (g)homozygous for Y402 in CFH. If the subject does not have at least oneprotective genotype, the subject is at increased risk for developingAMD.

The invention provides a method for assessing the risk of developmentof, or likely progression of, macular degeneration or other complementmediated disease in a human subject. Underlying the methods arediscoveries made through genetic association studies relating certaingenetic features to risk or protective phenotypes of complement relateddisease, in this case, age related macular degeneration. The methods ofthe invention include the steps of obtaining a biological sample from ahuman subject, and analyzing the sample by any validated technique knownin the art to determine whether the subject carries one or more of:

A or G at rs641153 of the BF gene, which translates to an R or Q atposition 32 of the human BF protein;

A or T at rs4151667 of the BF gene, which translates to an L or H atposition 9 of the human BF protein;

G or T at rs547154 of the C2 gene, which is in intron 10;

-   -   C or G at rs9332379 of the C2 gene, which translates to an E or        D at position 318 of the human C2 protein;

A or G at rs1048709 of the BF gene, which translates to a R at position150;

-   -   delTT in the CFH gene; and    -   C or T at rs1061170 of the CFH gene, which translates to a Y or        H at position 402 of the human CFH protein.

In certain embodiments the sample is analyzed to determine whether thesubject carries one or more of:

A or G at rs641153 of the BF gene, which translates to an R or Q atposition 32 of the human BF protein;

A or T at rs4151667 of the BF gene, which translates to an L or H atposition 9 of the human BF protein;

G or T at rs547154 of the C′2 gene, which is in intron 10; and,

C or G at rs9332379 of the C2 gene, which translates to an E or D atposition 318 of the human C2 protein.

In some embodiments, the sample is an accessible body fluid, such asblood or a blood component, or urine. When assessment is done at the DNAor mRNA level, cellular material will be required to enable detection ofa genotype from a cell of the subject.

In some embodiments, the subject may have been diagnosed with acondition including AMD, early AMD, choroidal neovascularization (CNV),or geographic atrophy (GA). In one embodiment, the subject has symptomsof disease, e.g., early stage macular degeneration symptoms such as thedevelopment of drusen. Some of the subjects may present with drusendevelopment. The subject may be asymptomatic of macular degeneration orother complement related disease, in which case, the analysisessentially provides a screening procedure which can be done on thepopulation generally or on some segment that is thought to be atincreased risk, such as individuals with a family history of complementrelated disease. Yet additional subjects may be at high risk foracquiring AMD. In one embodiment the subject has the Y402H SNP.

Thus, in another aspect, the invention provides a kit for assessing therisk of development of, or likely progression of, macular degenerationor other complement mediated disease in a human subject. The kitincludes a collection of reagents for detecting in a sample from thesubject one or more, preferably two or more of the polymorphisms orallelic variants listed above. It may comprise oligonucleotides,typically labeled oligonucleotides, designed to detect a variant usingany number of methods known to the art. The kit may include, forexample, PCR primers for amplifying a target polynucleotide sequencewhen the target is a polymorphism, or a specific binding protein, e.g.,a monoclonal antibody, that recognizes and binds specifically to anallelic variant of a target protein as a basis for obtaining therelevant genetic/proteomic information from the sample. In a preferredembodiment, the kit contains oligonucleotides immobilized on a solidsupport.

Depending on the format, the components in a kit for identifying asubject at increased risk for developing age-related maculardegeneration (AMD) will include one or more reagents for detecting atleast one protective polymorphism in the subject. Such reagents allowdetection of at least one protective polymorphism including: (a) R32Q inBF (rs641153); (b) L9H in BF (rs4151667); (c) IVS 10 in C2 (rs547154);and (d) E318D in C2 (rs9332739). The reagents in such kits may includeone or more oligonucleotides that detect the protective polymorphism.Other kit components can include one or more reagents for amplifying atarget sequence, where the target sequence encompasses one or more ofthe protective polymorphisms. In some versions of the kit, the one ormore oligonucleotides are immobilized on a solid support.

In a related aspect the invention provides microarrays for identifying asubject at increased risk for developing AMD. In further aspects, thisinvention provides microarrays containing oligonucleotide probes capableof hybridizing under stringent conditions to one or more nucleic acidmolecules having a protective polymorphism. Examples of such protectivepolymorphisms include: (a) R32Q in BF (rs641153); (b) L9H in BF(rs4151667); (c) IVS 10 in C2 (rs547154); and (d) E318D in C2(rs9332739). Such microarrays can further contain oligonucleotide probescapable of hybridizing under stringent conditions to one or moreadditional nucleic acid molecules having a polymorphism that includes,for example, (a) the delTT polymorphism in CFH; (b) the R150Rpolymorphism in BF; and (c) the Y402H polymorphism in CFH.

The foregoing and other features and advantages of the disclosure willbecome more apparent from the following detailed description of severalembodiments.

SEQUENCES

The nucleic and amino acid sequences listed in the accompanying sequencelisting are shown using standard letter abbreviations for nucleotidebases, and three letter code for amino acids, as defined in 37 C.F.R.1.822. Only one strand of each nucleic acid sequence is shown, but thecomplementary strand is understood as included by any reference to thedisplayed strand. All sequence database accession numbers referencedherein are understood to refer to the version of the sequence identifiedby that accession number as it was available on the designated date. Inthe accompanying sequence listing:

SEQ ID NO:1 is based on the SNP with refSNP ID: rs641153 as availablethrough NCBI on Jan. 30, 2006 (revised Jan. 5, 2006). This SNP has an Aor a G at nucleotide position 22, generating an R32Q variant (glutamineinstead of arginine at amino acid position 32) in the BF gene. Thesequence provided for R32Q isCCACTCCATGGTCTTTGGCCCRGCCCCAGGGATCCTGCTCTCT where R=A or G (SEQ IDNO:1).

SEQ ID NO:2 shows the SNP with refSNP ID: rs4151667 as available throughNCBI on Jan. 30, 2006 (revised Jan. 5, 2006). This SNP has an A or a Tat nucleotide position 26, generating an L9H variant (histidine insteadof leucine at amino acid position 9) in the BF gene. The sequenceprovided for rs4151667 isATGGGGAGCAATCTCAGCCCCCAACRCTGCCTGATGCCCTTTATCTTGGGC where R=A or T (SEQID NO:2).

SEQ ID NO:3 is based on the SNP with refSNP ID: rs547154 as availablethrough NCBI on Jan. 30, 2006 (revised Jan. 5, 2006). This SNP has a Gor a T at nucleotide position 23 in intron 10 of the C2 gene. Thesequence provided for rs547154 isGAGGAGCCCGCCAGAGGCCCGTRTTGGGAACCTGGACACAGTGCCC where R is G or T. (SEQID NO:3).

SEQ ID NO:4 shows the SNP with refSNP ID: rs9332739 as available throughNCBI on Jan. 30, 2006 (revised Jan. 5, 2006). This SNP has a C or a G atnucleotide position 26, generating an E318D variant (aspartic acidinstead of glutamic acid at amino acid position 318) in the C2 gene. Thesequence provided for rs9332739 isACGACAACTCCCGGGATATGACTGARGTGATCAGCAGCCTGGAAAATGCCA where R is C or G(SEQ ID NO:4).

SEQ ID NO:5 shows the SNP with refSNP ID: rs1048709 as available throughNCBI on Jan. 30, 2006 (revised Jan. 5, 2006). This SNP has an A or a Gat nucleotide position 26 in the BF gene. This SNP does not cause anamino acid change at position 150 (R150R). The sequence provided forrs1048709 is ATCGCACCTGCCAAGTGAATGGCCGRTGGAGTGGGCAGACAGCGATCTGTG where Ris A or G (SEQ ID NO:5).

SEQ ID NOS:6 and 7 show the delTT polymorphism sequences. The delTTpolymorphism is a 2 bp insertion/deletion polymorphism. The sequencesare as follows:

(SEQ ID NO: 6) CCTTGCTATTACATACTAATTCATAACTTTTTTTTTCGTTTTAGAAAGGCCCTGTGGACA; and (SEQ ID NO: 7)CCTTGCTATTACATACTAATTCATAACTTTTTTTTTTTCGTTTTAGAA AGGCCCTGTGGACA.

SEQ ID NO:8 shows the SNP with refSNP ID: rs1061170 as available throughNCBI on Jan. 30, 2006 (revised Jan. 5, 2006). This SNP has a C or a T atnucleotide 1277 in exon 9 (nucleotide 26 in the below sequence),generating a Y402H variant (histidine instead of tyrosine at amino acidposition 402) in the CFH gene. The sequence provided for rs1061170 isTTTGGAAAATGGATATAATCAAAATR ATGGAAGAAAGTTTGTACAGGGTAA where R is C or T(SEQ ID NO:8).

SEQ ID NO:9 shows the entire BF amino acid sequence with 9H & 32R)

(SEQ ID NO: 9)mgsnlspqhc lmpfilglls ggvtttpwsl arpqgscsle gveikggsfr llqegqaleyvcpsgfypyp vqtrtcrstg swstlktqdq ktvrkaecra ihcprphdfe ngeywprspyynvsdeisfh cydgytlrgs anrtcqvngr wsgqtaicdn gagycsnpgi pigtrkvgsqyrledsvtyh csrgltlrgs qrrtcqeggs wsgtepscqd sfmydtpqev aeaflssltetiegvdaedg hgpgeqqkr↓k ivldpsgsmn iylvldgsds igasnftgak kclvnliekvasygvkpryg lvtyatypki wvkvseadss nadwvtkqln einyedhklk sgtntkkalqavysmmswpd dvppegwnrt rhviilmtdg lhnmggdpit videirdlly igkdrknpredyldvyvfgv gplvnqvnin alaskkdneq hvfkvkdmen ledvfyqmid esqslslcgmvwehrkgtdy hkqpwqakis virpskghes cmgavvseyf vltaahcftv ddkehsikvsvggekrdlei evvlfhpnyn ingkkeagip efydydvali klknklkygq tirpiclpctegttralrlp ptttcqqqke ellpaqdika lfvseeekkl trkevyikng dkkgscerdaqyapgydkvk disevvtprf lctggvspya dpntcrgdsg gplivhkrsr fiqvgviswgvvdvcknqkr qkqvpahard fhinlfqvlp wlkeklqded lgfl

SEQ ID NO:10 shows the entire BF amino acid sequence with 9L & 32Q:

(SEQ ID NO: 10)mgsnlspqlc lmpfilglls ggvtttpwsl aqpqgscsle gveikggsfr llqegqaleyvcpsgfypyp vqtrtcrstg swstlktqdq ktvrkaecra ihcprphdfe ngeywprspyynvsdeisfh cydgytlrgs anrtcqvngr wsgqtaicdn gagycsnpgi pigtrkvgsqyrledsvtyh csrgltlrgs qrrtcqeggs wsgtepscqd sfmydtpqev aeaflssltetiegvdaedg hgpgeqqkr↓k ivldpsgsmn iylvldgsds igasnftgak kclvnliekvasygvkpryg lvtyatypki wvkvseadss nadwvtkqln einyedhklk sgtntkkalqavysmmswpd dvppegwnrt rhviilmtdg lhnmggdpit videirdlly igkdrknpredyldvyvfgv gplvnqvnin alaskkdneq hvfkvkdmen ledvfyqmid esqslslcgmvwehrkgtdy hkqpwqakis virpskghes cmgavvseyf vltaahcftv ddkehsikvsvggekrdlei evvlfhpnyn ingkkeagip efydydvali klknklkygq tirpiclpctegttralrlp ptttcqqqke ellpaqdika lfvseeekkl trkevyikng dkkgscerdaqyapgydkvk disevvtprf lctggvspya dpntcrgdsg gplivhkrsr fiqvgviswgvvdvcknqkr qkqvpahard fhinlfqvlp wlkeklqded lgfl

SEQ ID NO:11 shows the entire BF amino acid sequence with 9H & 32Q:

(SEQ ID NO: 11)mgsnlspqhc lmpfilglls ggvtttpwsl aqpqgscsle gveikggsfr llqegqaleyvcpsgfypyp vqtrtcrstg swstlktqdq ktvrkaecra ihcprphdfe ngeywprspyynvsdeisfh cydgytlrgs anrtcqvngr wsgqtaicdn gagycsnpgi pigtrkvgsqyrledsvtyh csrgltlrgs qrrtcqeggs wsgtepscqd sfmydtpqev aeaflssltetiegvdaedg hgpgeqqkr↓k ivldpsgsmn iylvldgsds igasnftgak kclvnliekvasygvkpryg lvtyatypki wvkvseadss nadwvtkqln einyedhklk sgtntkkalqavysmmswpd dvppegwnrt rhviilmtdg lhnmggdpit videirdlly igkdrknpredyldvyvfgv gplvnqvnin alaskkdneq hvfkvkdmen ledvfyqmid esqslslcgmvwehrkgtdy hkqpwqakis virpskghes cmgavvseyf vltaahcftv ddkehsikvsvggekrdlei evvlfhpnyn ingkkeagip efydydvali klknklkygq tirpiclpctegttralrlp ptttcqqqke ellpaqdika lfvseeekkl trkevyikng dkkgscerdaqyapgydkvk disevvtprf lctggvspya dpntcrgdsg gplivhkrsr fiqvgviswgvvdvcknqkr qkqvpahard fhinlfqvlp wlkeklqded lgfl

SEQ ID NO:12 shows the entire C2 amino acid sequence with 318D:

(SEQ ID NO: 12)mgplmvlfcl lflypglads apscpqnvni sggtftlshg wapgslltys cpqglypspasrlckssgqw qtpgatrsls kavckpvrcp apvsfengiy tprlgsypvg gnvsfecedgfilrgspvrq crpngmwdge tavcdngagh cpnpgislga vrtgfrfghg dkvryrcssnlvltgssere cqgngvwsgt epicrqpysy dfpedvapal gtsfshmlga tnptqktkeslgrkiqiqrs ghlnlyllld csqsysendf lifkesaslm vdrifsfein vsvaiitfasepkvlmsvln dnsrdmtdvi sslenanykd hengtgtnty aalnsvylmm nnqmrllgmetmawqeirha iilltdgksn mggspktavd hireilninq krndyldiya igvgkldvdwrelnelgskk dgerhafilq dtkalhqvfe hmldvskltd ticgvgnmsa nasdqertpwhvtikpksqe tcrgalisdq wvltaahcfr dgndhslwry nvgdpksqwg kefliekavispgfdvfakk nqgilefygd diallklaqk vkmstharpi clpctmeanl alrrpqgstcrdhenellnk qsvpahfval ngsklninlk mgvewtscae vvsqektmfp nltdvrevvtdqflcsgtqe despckgesg gavflerrfr ffqvglvswg lynpclgsad knsrkraprskvppprdfhi nlfrmqpwlr qhlgdvlnfl pl

SEQ ID NO:13 shows the 9 BF amino acid sequence with 32Q: wslaqpqgs (SEQID NO:13).

SEQ ID NO:14 shows the 9 BF amino acid sequence with 9H: lspqhclmp (SEQID NO:14).

SEQ ID NO:15 shows the 7 C2 amino acid sequence with 318D: dmtdvis (SEQID NO:15).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a diagram and haplotype analysis of the SNPs in BF and C2. TheSNPs used in the study are shown along with the predicted haplotypes,odds ratios (OR), P values (P) and frequencies in the combined cases(CAS) and controls (CON). The 95% confidence interval for H7 is(0.33-0.61) and for H10 is (0.23-0.56). The ancestral (chimpanzee)haplotype is designated as Anc. Examples of haplotype H2 (NCBI AccessionNo. AL662849, as available on Feb. 8, 2006), H5 (NCBI Accession No.AL645922 and NCBI Accession No. NG_(—)004658, as available on Feb. 8,2006) and H7 (NCBI Accession No. NG_(—)000013, as available on Feb. 8,2006) have been sequenced and no additional non-synonymous variants ineither the C2 or BF genes are present (Stewart et al. (2004) Genome Res.14:1176-87).

FIG. 2 shows combined complement gene analyses. Individual SNP analysesrevealed several possible combinations of SNPs that protect anindividual from developing AMD. To test these, an empirical model wasfirst applied. FIG. 2A shows a model graphic, interpreted as giving fourpossible combinations of genotypes that would protect from AMD. Theseare: (1) rs641153 (R32Q) is G/A and rs1061170 (Y402H) is C/T; (2)rs547154 is G/A and rs1061170 is C/C; (3) rs4151667 (L9H) is T/A andrs1061170 is C/T; (4) rs4151667 is T/A and rs1061170 is C/C. Applicationof this model resulted in the distributions shown in FIG. 2B for theIowa, Columbia, and combined cohorts, respectively. These distributionswere subjected to Fisher's exact test and evidenced p-values ofP=0.00237, P=4.28×10⁻⁸ and P=7.90×10⁻¹⁰. For comparative purposes,Exemplar software generated a protective model that provided a “bestfit” to the data using a machine-learning method know as GeneticAlgorithms. The resulting best performing model is depicted in FIG. 2C.This model describes four possible individual or combinations ofgenotypes that protect from AMD; i.e., combinations resulting in themodel being “true.” These genotypes are: (1) rs1048709 (R150R) is G/Gand rs1061170 is C/C; or (2) rs547154 is G/A; or (3) rs4151667 is T/A;or (4) CFH intron 1 variant is delTT. The model performance is shown inFIG. 2D for the Iowa, Columbia, and combined cohorts. Thesedistributions evidenced p-values of P=7.49×10⁻⁵, P=2.97×10⁻²² andP=1.69×10⁻²³, respectively.

FIG. 3 shows immunolocalization of BF (FIG. 3A); Ba (a fragment of thefull-length factor B) (FIG. 3B); and C3 (FIG. 3C) along the retinalpigment epithelium (RPE)-choroid (CH) complex in sections from anunfixed eye of a 72 year old donor with early stage AMD. Anti-BFantibody (Quidel; reaction product is red) labels drusen (D),particularly along their rims, Bruch's membrane, and the choroidalstroma. Anti-Ba antibody (Quidel; reaction product is purple) labelsBruch's membrane and RPE-associated patches. Note that the distributionof BF is similar to that of C3. Brown coloration in the RPE cytoplasmand choroid is due to melanin. Bruch's membrane (BM); Retina (R).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Provided herein are sequence polymorphisms that were discovered toconfer a protective effect against age-related macular degeneration(AMD). These polymorphisms include those found in the factor B (BF) andcomplement component 2 (C2) genes. Protective polymorphisms also includethe delTT polymorphism in the CFH gene. Identifying subjects with thesepolymorphisms, as well as subjects with the recently discovered riskhaplotype (Y402H in the complement factor H (CFH) gene), will aid indiagnosing those subjects at genetic risk for AMD.

Terms

The following explanations of terms and methods are provided to betterdescribe the present disclosure and to guide those of ordinary skill inthe art in the practice of the present disclosure. The singular forms“a,” “an,” and “the” refer to one or more than one, unless the contextclearly dictates otherwise. For example, the term “including a nucleicacid” includes single or plural nucleic acids and is consideredequivalent to the phrase “including at least one nucleic acid.” The term“or” refers to a single element of stated alternative elements or acombination of two or more elements, unless the context clearlyindicates otherwise. As used herein, “comprises” means “includes.” Thus,“comprising A or B,” means “including A, B, or A and B,” withoutexcluding additional elements. For example, the phrase “mutations orpolymorphisms” or “one or more mutations or polymorphisms” means amutation, a polymorphism, or combinations thereof, wherein “a” can referto more than one.

Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those describedherein can be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure,suitable methods and materials are described below. The materials,methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to belimiting.

Unless otherwise noted, technical terms are used according toconventional usage. Definitions of common terms in molecular biology maybe found in Benjamin Lewin, Genes V, published by Oxford UniversityPress, 1994 (ISBN 0-19-854287-9); Kendrew et al. (eds.), TheEncyclopedia of Molecular Biology, published by Blackwell Science Ltd.,1994 (ISBN 0-632-02182-9); and Robert A. Meyers (ed.), Molecular Biologyand Biotechnology: a Comprehensive Desk Reference, published by VCHPublishers, Inc., 1995 (ISBN 1-56081-569-8).

Age-related macular degeneration: A medical condition wherein the lightsensing cells in the macula malfunction and over time cease to work. Inmacular degeneration the final form or the disease results in missing orblurred vision in the central, reading part of vision. The outer,peripheral part of the vision remains intact. AMD is further dividedinto a “dry,” or nonexudative, form and a “wet,” or exudative, form.Eighty five to ninety percent of cases are categorized as “dry” maculardegeneration where fatty tissue, known as drusen, will slowly build upbehind the retina. The classic lesion in dry macular degeneration isgeographic atrophy. Ten to fifteen percent of cases involve the growthof abnormal blood vessels under the retina. These cases are called “wet”macular degeneration due to the leakage of blood and other fluid frombehind the retina into the eye. Wet macular degeneration usually beginsas the dry form. If allowed to continue without treatment it usuallycompletely destroys the macular structure and function. Choroidalneovascularization is the development of abnormal blood vessels beneaththe retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) layer of the retina.

Medical, photodynamic, laser photocoagulation and laser treatment of wetmacular degeneration are available. Risk factors for AMD include aging,smoking, family history, exposure to sunlight especially blue light,hypertension, cardiovascular risk factors such as high cholesterol andobesity, high fat intake, oxidative stress, and race.

AMD is an example of a disease characterized by alternative complementcascade disregulation, which also includes membrane proliferativeglomerulonephritis (MPGN) and a predisposition to develop aorticaneurism. Methods described herein for detection or increased risk ofdeveloping AMD may also be used to detect increased risk for otherdiseases characterized by alternative complement cascade disregulation(e.g., MPGN).

Allele: Any one of a number of viable DNA codings of the same gene(sometimes the term refers to a non-gene sequence) occupying a givenlocus (position) on a chromosome. An individual's genotype for that genewill be the set of alleles it happens to possess. In an organism whichhas two copies of each of its chromosomes (a diploid organism), twoalleles make up the individual's genotype. In a diploid organism, whenthe two copies of the gene are identical—that is, have the sameallele—they are said to be homozygous for that gene. A diploid organismwhich has two different allele's of the gene is said to be heterozygous.

As used herein, the process of “detecting alleles” may be referred to as“genotyping, determining or identifying an allele or polymorphism,” orany similar phrase. The allele actually detected will be manifest in thegenomic DNA of a subject, but may also be detectable from RNA or proteinsequences transcribed or translated from this region.

Amplification: The use of a technique that increases the number ofcopies of a nucleic acid molecule in a sample. An example of in vitroamplification is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in which abiological sample obtained from a subject is contacted with a pair ofoligonucleotide primers, under conditions that allow for hybridizationof the primers to a nucleic acid molecule in the sample. The primers areextended under suitable conditions, dissociated from the template, andthen re-annealed, extended, and dissociated to amplify the number ofcopies of the nucleic acid molecule. The product of amplification can becharacterized by such techniques as electrophoresis, restrictionendonuclease cleavage patterns, oligonucleotide hybridization orligation, and/or nucleic acid sequencing.

Other examples of amplification methods include strand displacementamplification, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,311;transcription-free isothermal amplification, as disclosed in U.S. Pat.No. 6,033,881; repair chain reaction amplification, as disclosed in PCTPublication No. WO 90/01069; ligase chain reaction amplification, asdisclosed in EP-A-320,308; gap filling ligase chain reactionamplification, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,427,930; and NASBA™ RNAtranscription-free amplification, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.6,025,134. An amplification method can be modified, including forexample by additional steps or coupling the amplification with anotherprotocol.

Array: An arrangement of molecules, particularly biologicalmacromolecules (such as polypeptides or nucleic acids) or cell or tissuesamples, in addressable locations on or in a substrate. A “microarray”is an array that is miniaturized so as to require or be aided bymicroscopic examination for evaluation or analysis. These arrays aresometimes called DNA chips, or—generally—biochips; though more formallythey are referred to as microarrays, and the process of testing the genepatterns of an individual is sometimes called microarray profiling. DNAarray fabrication chemistry and structure is varied, typically made upof 400,000 different features, each holding DNA from a different humangene, but some employing a solid-state chemistry to pattern as many as780,000 individual features.

The array of molecules (“features”) makes it possible to carry out avery large number of analyses on a sample at one time. In certainexample arrays, one or more molecules (such as an oligonucleotide probe)will occur on the array a plurality of times (such as twice), forinstance to provide internal controls. The number of addressablelocations on the array can vary, for example from a few (such as three)to at least 50, at least 100, at least 200, at least 250, at least 300,at least 500, at least 600, at least 1000, at least 10,000, or more. Inparticular examples, an array includes nucleic acid molecules, such asoligonucleotide sequences that are at least 15 nucleotides in length,such as about 15-40 nucleotides in length, such as at least 18nucleotides in length, at least 21 nucleotides in length, or even atleast 25 nucleotides in length. In one example, the molecule includesoligonucleotides attached to the array via their 5′- or 3′-end.

Within an array, each arrayed sample is addressable, in that itslocation can be reliably and consistently determined within the at leasttwo dimensions of the array. The feature application location on anarray can assume different shapes. For example, the array can be regular(such as arranged in uniform rows and columns) or irregular. Thus, inordered arrays the location of each sample is assigned to the sample atthe time when it is applied to the array, and a key may be provided inorder to correlate each location with the appropriate target or featureposition. Often, ordered arrays are arranged in a symmetrical gridpattern, but samples could be arranged in other patterns (such as inradially distributed lines, spiral lines, or ordered clusters).Addressable arrays usually are computer readable, in that a computer canbe programmed to correlate a particular address on the array withinformation about the sample at that position (such as hybridization orbinding data, including for instance signal intensity). In some examplesof computer readable formats, the individual features in the array arearranged regularly, for instance in a Cartesian grid pattern, which canbe correlated to address information by a computer.

Also contemplated herein are protein-based arrays, where the probemolecules are or include proteins, or where the target molecules are orinclude proteins, and arrays including nucleic acids to whichproteins/peptides are bound, or vice versa.

Binding or stable binding: An association between two substances ormolecules, such as the hybridization of one nucleic acid molecule toanother (or itself) and the association of an antibody with a peptide.An oligonucleotide molecule binds or stably binds to a target nucleicacid molecule if a sufficient amount of the oligonucleotide moleculeforms base pairs or is hybridized to its target nucleic acid molecule,to permit detection of that binding. Binding can be detected by anyprocedure known to one skilled in the art, such as by physical orfunctional properties of the target:oligonucleotide complex. Forexample, binding can be detected functionally by determining whetherbinding has an observable effect upon a biosynthetic process such asexpression of a gene, DNA replication, transcription, translation, andthe like.

Physical methods of detecting the binding of complementary strands ofnucleic acid molecules, include but are not limited to, such methods asDNase I or chemical footprinting, gel shift and affinity cleavageassays, Northern blotting, dot blotting and light absorption detectionprocedures. For example, one method involves observing a change in lightabsorption of a solution containing an oligonucleotide (or an analog)and a target nucleic acid at 220 to 300 nm as the temperature is slowlyincreased. If the oligonucleotide or analog has bound to its target,there is a sudden increase in absorption at a characteristic temperatureas the oligonucleotide (or analog) and target disassociate from eachother, or melt. In another example, the method involves detecting asignal, such as a detectable label, present on one or both complementarystrands.

The binding between an oligomer and its target nucleic acid isfrequently characterized by the temperature (T_(m)) at which 50% of theoligomer is melted from its target. A higher (T_(m)) means a stronger ormore stable complex relative to a complex with a lower (T_(m)).

Complement component 2 (C2): Part of the classical pathway of thecomplement system. Activated C1 cleaves C2 into C2a and C2b. C2a leadsto activation of C3. Deficiency of C2 has been reported to be associatedwith certain autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupuserythematosus, Henoch-Schonlein purpura, or polymyositis. C2 is a memberof EC 3.4.21.43. It is also known as classical-complement-pathway C3/C5convertase.

Complement Factor H: Otherwise known as beta-1H; a serum glycoproteinthat controls the function of the alternative complement pathway andacts as a cofactor with factor I (C3b inactivator). It regulates theactivity of the C3 convertases such as C4b2a.

Complementarity and percentage complementarity: Molecules withcomplementary nucleic acids form a stable duplex or triplex when thestrands bind, (hybridize), to each other by forming Watson-Crick,Hoogsteen or reverse Hoogsteen base pairs. Stable binding occurs when anoligonucleotide molecule remains detectably bound to a target nucleicacid sequence under the required conditions.

Complementarity is the degree to which bases in one nucleic acid strandbase pair with the bases in a second nucleic acid strand.Complementarity is conveniently described by percentage, that is, theproportion of nucleotides that form base pairs between two strands orwithin a specific region or domain of two strands. For example, if 10nucleotides of a 15-nucleotide oligonucleotide form base pairs with atargeted region of a DNA molecule, that oligonucleotide is said to have66.67% complementarity to the region of DNA targeted.

In the present disclosure, “sufficient complementarity” means that asufficient number of base pairs exist between an oligonucleotidemolecule and a target nucleic acid sequence (such as a CFH, BF or C2sequence) to achieve detectable binding. When expressed or measured bypercentage of base pairs formed, the percentage complementarity thatfulfills this goal can range from as little as about 50% complementarityto full (100%) complementary. In general, sufficient complementarity isat least about 50%, for example at least about 75% complementarity, atleast about 90% complementarity, at least about 95% complementarity, atleast about 98% complementarity, or even at least about 100%complementarity.

A thorough treatment of the qualitative and quantitative considerationsinvolved in establishing binding conditions that allow one skilled inthe art to design appropriate oligonucleotides for use under the desiredconditions is provided by Beltz et al. (1983) Methods Enzymol100:266-285; and by Sambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor LaboratoryPress, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): A long chain polymer which includes thegenetic material of most living organisms (some viruses have genesincluding ribonucleic acid, RNA). The repeating units in DNA polymersare four different nucleotides, each of which includes one of the fourbases (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) bound to a deoxyribosesugar to which a phosphate group is attached. Triplets of nucleotides,referred to as codons, in DNA molecules code for amino acid in apolypeptide. The term codon is also used for the corresponding (andcomplementary) sequences of three nucleotides in the mRNA into which theDNA sequence is transcribed.

Drusen: Deposits that accumulate between the RPE basal lamina and theinner collagenous layer of Bruch's membrane (see, for example, van derSchaft et al. (1992) Ophthalmol. 99:278-86; Spraul et al. (1997) Arch.Ophthalmol. 115:267-73; and Mullins et al., Histochemical comparison ofocular “drusen” in monkey and human, In M. LaVail, J. Hollyfield, and R.Anderson (Eds.), in Degenerative Retinal Diseases (pp. 1-10). New York:Plenum Press, 1997). Hard drusen are small distinct deposits comprisinghomogeneous eosinophilic material and are usually round orhemispherical, without sloped borders. Soft drusen are larger, usuallynot homogeneous, and typically contain inclusions and sphericalprofiles. Some drusen may be calcified. The term “diffuse drusen,” or“basal linear deposit,” is used to describe amorphous material whichforms a layer between the inner collagenous layer of Bruch's membraneand the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). This material can appearsimilar to soft drusen histologically, with the exception that it is notmounded.

Factor B (BF): A proactivator of complement 3 in the alternate pathwayof complement activation. Factor b is converted by factor d to c3convertase. BF is a member of EC 3.4.21.47. Factor B circulates in theblood as a single chain polypeptide. Upon activation of the alternativepathway, it is cleaved by complement factor d yielding the noncatalyticchain Ba and the catalytic subunit Bb. The active subunit Bb is a serineprotease which associates with C3b to form the alternative pathway C3convertase. BF is also known as alternative-complement-pathway C3/C5convertase.

Genetic predisposition or risk: Susceptibility of a subject to a geneticdisease, such as AMD. However, such susceptibility may or may not resultin actual development of the disease.

Haplotype: The genetic constitution of an individual chromosome. Indiploid organisms, a haplotype contains one member of the pair ofalleles for each site. A haplotype can refer to only one locus or to anentire genome. Haplotype can also refer to a set of single nucleotidepolymorphisms (SNPs) found to be statistically associated on a singlechromatid.

Hybridization: Oligonucleotides and their analogs hybridize by hydrogenbonding, which includes Watson-Crick, Hoogsteen or reversed Hoogsteenhydrogen bonding, between complementary bases. Generally, nucleic acidconsists of nitrogenous bases that are either pyrimidines (cytosine (C),uracil (U), and thymine (T)) or purines (adenine (A) and guanine (G)).These nitrogenous bases form hydrogen bonds between a pyrimidine and apurine, and the bonding of the pyrimidine to the purine is referred toas “base pairing.” More specifically, A will hydrogen bond to T or U,and G will bond to C. “Complementary” refers to the base pairing thatoccurs between to distinct nucleic acid sequences or two distinctregions of the same nucleic acid sequence.

“Specifically hybridizable” and “specifically complementary” are termsthat indicate a sufficient degree of complementarity such that stableand specific binding occurs between the oligonucleotide (or its analog)and the DNA or RNA target. The oligonucleotide or oligonucleotide analogneed not be 100% complementary to its target sequence to be specificallyhybridizable. An oligonucleotide or analog is specifically hybridizablewhen binding of the oligonucleotide or analog to the target DNA or RNAmolecule interferes with the normal function of the target DNA or RNA,and there is a sufficient degree of complementarity to avoidnon-specific binding of the oligonucleotide or analog to non-targetsequences under conditions where specific binding is desired, forexample under physiological conditions in the case of in vivo assays orsystems. Such binding is referred to as specific hybridization.

Hybridization conditions resulting in particular degrees of stringencywill vary depending upon the nature of the hybridization method ofchoice and the composition and length of the hybridizing nucleic acidsequences. Generally, the temperature of hybridization and the ionicstrength (especially the Na+ and/or Mg++ concentration) of thehybridization buffer will determine the stringency of hybridization,though wash times also influence stringency. Calculations regardinghybridization conditions required for attaining particular degrees ofstringency are discussed by Sambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor LaboratoryPress, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989, chapters 9 and 11; and Ausubel etal. Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons,Inc., 1999.

For purposes of the present disclosure, “stringent conditions” encompassconditions under which hybridization will only occur if there is lessthan 25% mismatch between the hybridization molecule and the targetsequence. “Stringent conditions” may be broken down into particularlevels of stringency for more precise definition. Thus, as used herein,“moderate stringency” conditions are those under which molecules withmore than 25% sequence mismatch will not hybridize; conditions of“medium stringency” are those under which molecules with more than 15%mismatch will not hybridize, and conditions of “high stringency” arethose under which sequences with more than 20% mismatch will nothybridize. Conditions of “very high stringency” are those under whichsequences with more than 10% mismatch will not hybridize.

The following is an exemplary set of hybridization conditions and is notmeant to be limiting:

Very High Stringency (Detects Sequences that Share 90% Identity)

Hybridization: 5×SSC at 65° C. for 16 hours

Wash twice: 2×SSC at room temperature (RT) for 15 minutes each

Wash twice: 0.5×SSC at 65° C. for 20 minutes each

High Stringency (Detects Sequences that Share 80% Identity or Greater)

Hybridization: 5×-6×SSC at 65° C.-70° C. for 16-20 hours

Wash twice: 2×SSC at RT for 5-20 minutes each

Wash twice: 1×SSC at 55° C.-70° C. for 30 minutes each

Low Stringency (Detects Sequences that Share Greater than 50% Identity)

Hybridization: 6×SSC at RT to 55° C. for 16-20 hours

Wash at least twice: 2×-3×SSC at RT to 55° C. for 20-30 minutes each

Isolated: An “isolated” biological component (such as a nucleic acidmolecule, protein, or organelle) has been substantially separated orpurified away from other biological components in the cell of theorganism in which the component naturally occurs, such as otherchromosomal and extra-chromosomal DNA and RNA, proteins and organelles.Nucleic acid molecules and proteins that have been “isolated” includenucleic acid molecules and proteins purified by standard purificationmethods. The term also embraces nucleic acid molecules and proteinsprepared by recombinant expression in a host cell as well as chemicallysynthesized nucleic acid molecules and proteins.

Linkage disequilibrium (LD): The non-random association of alleles attwo or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. LD describes asituation in which some combinations of alleles or genetic markers occurmore or less frequently in a population than would be expected from arandom formation of haplotypes from alleles based on their frequencies.The expected frequency of occurrence of two alleles that are inheritedindependently is the frequency of the first allele multiplied by thefrequency of the second allele. Alleles that co-occur at expectedfrequencies are said to be in linkage equilibrium.

Locus: The position of a gene (or other significant sequence) on achromosome.

Mutation: Any change of the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome. Insome instances, a mutation will alter a characteristic or trait(phenotype), but this is not always the case. Types of mutations includebase substitution point mutations (e.g., transitions or transversions),deletions, and insertions. Missense mutations are those that introduce adifferent amino acid into the sequence of the encoded protein; nonsensemutations are those that introduce a new stop codon. In the case ofinsertions or deletions, mutations can be in-frame (not changing theframe of the overall sequence) or frame shift mutations, which mayresult in the misreading of a large number of codons (and often leads toabnormal termination of the encoded product due to the presence of astop codon in the alternative frame).

This term specifically encompasses variations that arise through somaticmutation, for instance those that are found only in disease cells, butnot constitutionally, in a given individual. Examples of suchsomatically-acquired variations include the point mutations thatfrequently result in altered function of various genes that are involvedin development of cancers. This term also encompasses DNA alterationsthat are present constitutionally, that alter the function of theencoded protein in a readily demonstrable manner, and that can beinherited by the children of an affected individual. In this respect,the term overlaps with “polymorphism,” as defined below, but generallyrefers to the subset of constitutional alterations.

Nucleic acid molecule: A polymeric form of nucleotides, which mayinclude both sense and anti-sense strands of RNA, cDNA, genomic DNA, andsynthetic forms and mixed polymers of the above. A nucleotide refers toa ribonucleotide, deoxynucleotide or a modified form of either type ofnucleotide. A “nucleic acid molecule” as used herein is synonymous with“nucleic acid” and “polynucleotide.” A nucleic acid molecule is usuallyat least 10 bases in length, unless otherwise specified. The termincludes single and double stranded forms of DNA. A polynucleotide mayinclude either or both naturally occurring and modified nucleotideslinked together by naturally occurring and/or non-naturally occurringnucleotide linkages.

Nucleotide: Includes, but is not limited to, a monomer that includes abase linked to a sugar, such as a pyrimidine, purine or syntheticanalogs thereof, or a base linked to an amino acid, as in a peptidenucleic acid (PNA). A nucleotide is one monomer in a polynucleotide. Anucleotide sequence refers to the sequence of bases in a polynucleotide.

Oligonucleotide: A nucleic acid molecule generally comprising a lengthof 300 bases or fewer. The term often refers to single strandeddeoxyribonucleotides, but it can refer as well to single or doublestranded ribonucleotides, RNA:DNA hybrids and double stranded DNAs,among others. The term “oligonucleotide” also includes oligonucleosides(that is, an oligonucleotide minus the phosphate) and any other organicbase polymer. In some examples, oligonucleotides are about 10 to about90 bases in length, for example, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 or 20bases in length. Other oligonucleotides are about 25, about 30, about35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60 bases, about 65bases, about 70 bases, about 75 bases or about 80 bases in length.Oligonucleotides may be single stranded, for example, for use as probesor primers, or may be double stranded, for example, for use in theconstruction of a mutant gene. Oligonucleotides can be either sense oranti sense oligonucleotides. An oligonucleotide can be modified asdiscussed above in reference to nucleic acid molecules. Oligonucleotidescan be obtained from existing nucleic acid sources (for example, genomicor cDNA), but can also be synthetic (for example, produced by laboratoryor in vitro oligonucleotide synthesis).

Polymorphism: A variation in the gene sequence. The polymorphisms can bethose variations (DNA sequence differences) which are generally foundbetween individuals or different ethnic groups and geographic locationswhich, while having a different sequence, produce functionallyequivalent gene products. The term can also refer to variants in thesequence which can lead to gene products that are not functionallyequivalent. Polymorphisms also encompass variations which can beclassified as alleles and/or mutations which can produce gene productswhich may have an altered function. Polymorphisms also encompassvariations which can be classified as alleles and/or mutations whicheither produce no gene product or an inactive gene product or an activegene product produced at an abnormal rate or in an inappropriate tissueor in response to an inappropriate stimulus. Further, the term is alsoused interchangeably with allele as appropriate.

Polymorphisms can be referred to, for instance, by the nucleotideposition at which the variation exists, by the change in amino acidsequence caused by the nucleotide variation, or by a change in someother characteristic of the nucleic acid molecule or protein that islinked to the variation.

Probes and Primers: A probe comprises an identifiable, isolated nucleicacid that recognizes a target nucleic acid sequence. Probes include anucleic acid that is attached to an addressable location, a detectablelabel or other reporter molecule and that hybridizes to a targetsequence. Typical labels include radioactive isotopes, enzymesubstrates, co-factors, ligands, chemiluminescent or fluorescent agents,haptens, and enzymes. Methods for labeling and guidance in the choice oflabels appropriate for various purposes are discussed, for example, inSambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed.,vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.,1989 and Ausubel et al. Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 4th ed.,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.

Primers are short nucleic acid molecules, for instance DNAoligonucleotides 10 nucleotides or more in length, for example thathybridize to contiguous complementary nucleotides or a sequence to beamplified. Longer DNA oligonucleotides may be about 15, 20, 25, 30 or 50nucleotides or more in length. Primers can be annealed to acomplementary target DNA strand by nucleic acid hybridization to form ahybrid between the primer and the target DNA strand, and then the primerextended along the target DNA strand by a DNA polymerase enzyme. Primerpairs can be used for amplification of a nucleic acid sequence, forexample, by the PCR or other nucleic-acid amplification methods known inthe art, as described below.

Methods for preparing and using nucleic acid probes and primers aredescribed, for example, in Sambrook et al. (ed.). Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor LaboratoryPress, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989; Ausubel et al. Short Protocols inMolecular Biology, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999; and Innis etal. PCR Protocols, A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press,Inc., San Diego, Calif., 1990. Amplification primer pairs can be derivedfrom a known sequence, for example, by using computer programs intendedfor that purpose such as Primer (Version 0.5, © 1991, WhiteheadInstitute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Mass.). One of ordinaryskill in the art will appreciate that the specificity of a particularprobe or primer increases with its length. Thus, in order to obtaingreater specificity, probes and primers can be selected that include atleast 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50 or more consecutive nucleotides of atarget nucleotide sequences.

Sample: A sample obtained from a human or non-human mammal subject. Asused herein, biological samples include all samples useful for geneticanalysis in subjects, including, but not limited to: cells, tissues, andbodily fluids, such as blood; derivatives and fractions of blood (suchas serum or plasma); extracted galls; biopsied or surgically removedtissue, including tissues that are, for example, unfixed, frozen, fixedin formalin and/or embedded in paraffin; tears; milk; skin scrapes;surface washings; urine; sputum; cerebrospinal fluid; prostate fluid;pus; bone marrow aspirates; BAL; saliva; cervical swabs; vaginal swabs;and oropharyngeal wash.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism or SNP: A DNA sequence variation,occurring when a single nucleotide: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine(C) or guanine (G)—in the genome differs between members of the species.As used herein, the term “single nucleotide polymorphism” (or SNP)includes mutations and polymorphisms. SNPs may fall within codingsequences (CDS) of genes or between genes (intergenic regions). SNPswithin a CDS change the codon, which may or may not change the aminoacid in the protein sequence. The former may constitute differentalleles. The latter are called silent mutations and typically occur inthe third position of the codon (called the wobble position).

Subject: Human and non-human mammals (such as veterinary subjects).

Methods for Identifying a Subject at Increased Risk for AMD

Methods are provided for identifying a subject at increased risk ofdeveloping age-related macular degeneration (AMD). These methods includeanalyzing the subject's factor B (BF) and/or complement component 2 (C2)genes, and determining whether the subject has at least one protectivepolymorphism, wherein the protective polymorphism is selected from thegroup consisting of: a) R32Q in BF (rs641153); b) L9H in BF (rs4151667);c) IVS 10 in C2 (rs547154); and d) E318D in C2 (rs9332739). If thesubject does not have at least one protective polymorphism, the subjectis at increased risk for developing AMD. The method may further includeanalyzing the subject's CFH gene, or any other desired gene. Asdescribed herein, the delTT polymorphism in the CFH gene has beenidentified as being protective for AMD.

The methods may also include analyzing the subject's genotype at eitherthe BF or C2 locus and at the CFH locus, and determining if the subjecthas at least one protective genotype selected from the group consistingof: a) heterozygous for the R32Q polymorphism in BF (rs641153); b)heterozygous for the L9H polymorphism in BF (rs4151667); c) heterozygousfor the IVS 10 polymorphism in C2 (rs547154); d) heterozygous for theE318D polymorphism in C2 (rs9332739); e) homozygous for the delTTpolymorphism in CFH; and f) homozygous for the R150R polymorphism in BF(rs1048709) and homozygous for Y402 in CFH; wherein if the subject doesnot have at least one protective genotype, the subject is at increasedrisk for developing AMD. The method may alternatively include analyzingthe subject's genotype at both the BF and C2 locus, and at the CFHlocus. The methods provided herein are also useful for identifying asubject at decreased risk of developing AMD, by determining if thesubject has at least one of the above-identified polymorphisms orgenotypes.

The analysis of a subject's genetic material for the presence or absenceof particular polymorphisms is performed by obtaining a sample from thesubject. This sample may be from any part of the subject's body that DNAor RNA can be isolated from. Analysis may also be performed on proteinisolated from a sample. Examples of such samples are discussed in moredetail below. The subject may have been diagnosed with AMD, includingearly AMD, choroidal neovascularization, or geographic atrophy. Thesubject may have symptoms of AMD, such as drusen, pigmentaryalterations, exudative changes such as hemorrhages, hard exudates, orsubretinal/sub-RPE/intraretinal fluid, decreased visual acuity, blurredvision, distorted vision (metamorphopsia), central scotomas, or troublediscerning colors. Alternatively, the subject may not have beendiagnosed with AMD, but may be in a high risk group, based on familyhistory, age, race, or lifestyle choices. These lifestyle choicesinclude, but are not limited to, smoking, exposure to sunlight(especially blue light), hypertension, cardiovascular risk factors suchas high cholesterol and obesity, high fat intake, and oxidative stress.Subjects at risk for developing AMD also include those that areheterozygous or homozygous for the risk haplotype Y402H in the CFH gene.

Techniques for determining the presence or absence of a particularpolymorphism or genotype of interest are well known in the art. Examplesof these methods are discussed below, and the particular method used isnot intended to be limiting. In addition, analyzing a subject's BF, C2or CFH genes for the particular polymorphisms disclosed herein is alsointended to include detection of any mutations that confer the sameamino acid change as found in the polymorphism. For example, the L9Hpolymorphism in BF changes the nucleotide codon for the 9^(th) aminoacid from CTC to CAC, generating a histidine instead of a leucine. Thischange could also be specified by the nucleotide codon CAT. The E318Dpolymorphism in C2 changes the nucleotide codon for the 318^(th) aminoacid from GAG to GAC, generating an aspartic acid instead of a glutamicacid. This change could also be specified by the nucleotide codon GAT.The R150R polymorphism in BF changes the nucleotide codon for the150^(th) amino acid from CGG to CGA. This change does not change theamino acid encoded (arginine). Arginine could also be encoded by CGT orCGC. In addition, arginine could be encoded by AGA or AGG: The Y402Hpolymorphism in CFH changes the nucleotide codon for the 402^(nd) aminoacid from a TAT to a CAT, generating a histidine instead of a tyrosine.This change could also be specified by the nucleotide codon CAC. Any ofthese nucleotide codons, or others capable of being identified by one ofskill in the art, can be detected in a subject.

The methods of the invention may identify at least about 5%, about 10%,about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70% of subjectsthat will develop AMD.

AMD Preventative Therapy

The present disclosure also provides methods of avoiding or reducing theincidence of AMD in a subject determined to be genetically predisposedto developing AMD. For example, if in using the methods described abovea mutation or protective polymorphism in the BF, C2 and/or CFH genes isnot identified in a subject at risk for AMD based on any of the riskfactors described above, a lifestyle choice may be undertaken by thesubject in order to avoid or reduce the incidence of AMD or to delay theonset of AMD. For example, the subject may quit smoking; modify diet toinclude less fat intake; increase the intake of antioxidants, includingvitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and zinc; or take prophylactic doses ofagents that retard the development of retinal neovascularization.Treatment for such individuals could involve vaccines against certainpathogens, or antibiotics, or antiviral or fungal drugs. Treatment couldalso involve anti-inflammatory drugs, or complement inhibitors. In someexamples, the treatment selected is specific and tailored for thesubject, based on the analysis of that subject's genetic profile.

Methods for Detecting Known Polymorphisms

Methods for detecting known polymorphisms include, but are not limitedto, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), single strandconformational polymorphism (SSCP) mapping, nucleic acid sequencing,hybridization, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), PFGE analysis,RNase protection assay, allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO), dot blotanalysis, allele-specific PCR amplification (ARMS), oligonucleotideligation assay (OLA) and PCR-SSCP. Also useful are the recentlydeveloped techniques of mass spectroscopy (such as Matrix Assisted LaserDesorption/Ionization (MALDI) or MALDI-Time Of Flight (MALDI-TOF); andDNA microchip technology for the detection of mutations. See, forexample, Chapters 6 and 17 in Human Molecular Genetics 2. Eds. TomStrachan and Andrew Read. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1999.

These techniques may include amplifying the nucleic acid beforeanalysis. Amplification techniques are known to those of skill in theart and are discussed below.

When a polymorphism causes a nucleotide change that creates or abolishesthe recognition site of a restriction enzyme, that restriction enzymemay be used to identify the polymorphism. Polymorphic alleles can bedistinguished by PCR amplifying across the polymorphic site anddigesting the PCR product with a relevant restriction endonuclease. Thedifferent products may be detected using a size fractionation method,such as gel electrophoresis. Alternatively, restriction fragment lengthpolymorphism (RFLP) may be used. In cases where the polymorphism doesnot result in a restriction site difference, differences between allelesmay be detected by amplification-created restriction site PCR. In thismethod, a primer is designed from sequence immediately adjacent to, butnot encompassing, the restriction site. The primer is deliberatelydesigned to have a single base mismatch in a noncritical position whichdoes not prevent hybridization and amplification of both polymorphicsequences. This nucleotide mismatch, together with the sequence of thepolymorphic site creates a restriction site not present in one of thealleles.

Single strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) mapping detects a bandthat migrates differentially because the sequence change causes adifference in single-strand, intramolecular base pairing.Single-stranded DNA molecules differing by only one base frequently showdifferent electrophoretic mobilities in nondenaturing gels. Differencesbetween normal and mutant DNA mobility are revealed by hybridizationwith labeled probes. This method does not detect all sequence changes,especially if the DNA fragment size is greater than about 500 bp, butcan be optimized to detect most DNA sequence variation. The reduceddetection sensitivity is a disadvantage, but the increased throughputpossible with SSCP makes it an attractive alternative to directsequencing for mutation detection on a research basis. The fragmentswhich have shifted mobility on SSCP gels are then sequenced to determinethe exact nature of the DNA sequence variation.

Direct DNA sequencing, either manual sequencing or automated fluorescentsequencing can detect sequence variation.

The detection of specific alleles may also be performed using Taqpolymerase (Holland et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.88:7276-80; Lee et al. (1999) J. Mol. Biol. 285:73-83). This is based onthe fact that Taq polymerase does not possess a proofreading 3′ to 5′exonuclease activity, but possesses a 5′ to 3′ exonuclease activity.This assay involves the use of two conventional PCR primers (forward andreverse), which are specific for the target sequence, and a thirdprimer, designed to bind specifically to a site on the target sequencedownstream of the forward primer binding site. The third primer isgenerally labeled with two fluorophores, a reporter dye at the 5′ end,and a quencher dye, having a different emission wavelength compared tothe reporter dye, at the 3′ end. The third primer also carries ablocking group at the 3′ terminal nucleotide, so that it cannot byitself prime any new DNA synthesis. During the PCR reaction, Taq DNApolymerase synthesizes a new DNA strand primed by the forward primer andas the enzyme approaches the third primer, its 5′ to 3′ exonucleaseactivity processively degrades the third primer from its 5′ end. The endresult is that the nascent DNA strand extends beyond the third primerbinding site and the reporter and quencher dyes are no longer bound tothe same molecule. As the reporter dye is no longer near the quencherdye, the resulting increase in reporter emission intensity may bedetected.

A polymorphism may be identified using one or more hybridization probesdesigned to hybridize with the particular polymorphism in the desiredgene. A probe used for hybridization detection methods should be in someway labeled so as to enable detection of successful hybridizationevents. This may be achieved by in vitro methods such asnick-translation, replacing nucleotides in the probe by radioactivelylabeled nucleotides, or by random primer extension, in which non-labeledmolecules at as a template for the synthesis of labeled copies. Otherstandard methods of labeling probes so as to detect hybridization areknown to those skilled in the art.

For DNA fragments up to about 2 kb in length, single-base changes can bedetected by chemical cleavage at the mismatched bases in mutant-normalheteroduplexes. For example, a strand of the DNA not including thepolymorphism of interest is radiolabeled at one end and then ishybridized with a strand of the subject DNA. The resulting heteroduplexDNA is treated with hydroxylamine or osmium tetroxide, which modifiesany C or C and T, respectively, in mismatched single-stranded regions;the modified backbone is susceptible to cleavage by piperidine. Theshortened labeled fragment is detected by gel electrophoresis andautoradiography in comparison with DNA not including the polymorphism ofinterest.

Mismatches are hybridized nucleic acid duplexes in which the two strandsare not 100% complementary. Lack of total homology may be due todeletions, insertions, inversions or substitutions. Mismatch detectioncan be used to detect point mutations in the gene or in its mRNAproduct. While these techniques are less sensitive than sequencing, theyare simpler to perform on a large number of samples. An example of amismatch cleavage technique is the RNase protection method. This methodinvolves the use of a labeled riboprobe which is complementary to onevariation of the polymorphism being detected (generally the polymorphismnot associated with protection from AMD). The riboprobe and either mRNAor DNA isolated from the subject are annealed (hybridized) together andsubsequently digested with the enzyme RNase A which is able to detectsome mismatches in a duplex RNA structure. If a mismatch is detected byRNase A, it cleaves at the site of the mismatch. Thus, when the annealedRNA preparation is separated on an electrophoretic gel matrix, if amismatch has been detected and cleaved by RNase A, an RNA product willbe seen which is smaller than the full length duplex RNA for theriboprobe and the mRNA or DNA. The riboprobe need not be the full lengthof the mRNA or gene but can be a segment of either. Alternatively,mismatches can be detected by shifts in the electrophoretic mobility ofmismatched duplexes relative to matched duplexes.

DNA sequences of the BF, C2 or CFH genes which have been amplified byuse of PCR may also be screened using allele-specific probes oroligonucleotides (ASO). These probes are nucleic acid oligomers, each ofwhich contains a region of the gene sequence harboring a known mutationor polymorphism. For example, one oligomer may be about 30 nucleotidesin length, corresponding to a portion of the BF, C2 or CFH genesequence. By use of a battery of such allele-specific probes, PCRamplification products can be screened to identify the presence of oneor more polymorphisms provided herein. Hybridization of allele-specificprobes with amplified BF, C2 or CFH sequences can be performed, forexample, on a nylon filter. Reverse dot-blotting may also be used. Forexample, a screen for more then one polymorphism may be performed usinga series of ASOs specific for each polymorphic allele, spotted onto asingle membrane which is then hybridized to labeled PCR-amplified testDNA. These assays may range from manually-spotted arrays of smallnumbers to very large ASO arrays on “gene chips” that can potentiallydetect large numbers of polymorphisms. Hybridization to a particularprobe under high stringency hybridization conditions indicates thepresence of the same polymorphism in the tissue as in theallele-specific probe. Such a technique can utilize probes which arelabeled with gold nanoparticles to yield a visual color result(Elghanian et al. (1997) Science 277:1078-81).

Allele-specific PCR amplification is based on a method calledamplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) (Newton et al. (1989)Nucleic Acids Res. 17:2503-16). In this method, oligonucleotides with amismatched 3′-residue will not function as primers in the PCR underappropriate conditions. Paired PCR reactions are carried out with twoprimers, one of which is a common primer, and one that exists in twoslightly different versions, one specific for each polymorphism. Theallele-specific primers are designed to be identical to the sequence ofthe two alleles over a region preceding the position of the variantnucleotide, up to and terminating in the variant nucleotide itself.Therefore, if the particular polymorphism or mutation is not present, anamplification product is not observed. In general, additional controlprimers are used to amplify an unrelated sequence. The location of thecommon primer can be designed to give products of different sizes fordifferent polymorphisms, so that the PCR products from multiplexedreactions form a ladder on a gel. The polymorphism-specific primers maybe label with different fluorescent or other labels, or may be given 5′extensions of different sizes. This method may be adapted for use inreal-time PCR.

In the oligonucleotide ligation assay (OLA), two oligonucleotides aredesigned to hybridize to adjacent sequences in the target. The site atwhich they join is the site of the polymorphism. DNA ligase will jointhe two oligonucleotides only if they are perfectly hybridized(Nickerson et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:8923-7). Theassay may use various formats, including ELISA analysis or afluorescence sequencher.

The technique of nucleic acid analysis using microchip technology mayalso be used. In this technique, potentially thousands of distinctoligonucleotide probes are built up in an array on a silicon chip.Nucleic acid to be analyzed is fluorescently labeled and hybridized tothe probes on the chip. It is also possible to study nucleicacid-protein interactions using these nucleic acid microchips. Usingthis technique one can determine the presence of mutations or evensequence the nucleic acid being analyzed or one can measure expressionlevels of a gene of interest. The method is one of parallel processingof many, even thousands, of probes at once and can tremendously increasethe rate of analysis.

Alteration of BF, C2 or CFH mRNA expression can be detected by anytechnique known in the art. These include Northern blot analysis, PCRamplification and RNase protection. Diminished mRNA expression indicatesan alteration of the wild-type gene. Allele detection techniques may beprotein based if a particular allele produces a protein with an aminoacid variant. For example, epitopes specific for the amino acid variantcan be detected with monoclonal antibodies. Alternatively, monoclonalantibodies immunoreactive with BF, C2 or CFH can be used to screen atissue. Lack of cognate antigen would indicate a mutation. Antibodiesspecific for products of mutant alleles could also be used to detectmutant gene product. Such immunological assays can be done in anyconvenient formats known in the art. These include Western blots,immunohistochemical assays and ELISA assays. Any means for detecting analtered protein can be used to detect alteration of the wild-type BF, C2or CFH gene. Functional assays, such as protein binding determinations,can be used. In addition, assays can be used which detect BF, C2 or CFHbiochemical function. Finding a mutant BF, C2 or CFH gene productindicates alteration of a wild-type BF, C2 or CFH gene.

Amplification of Nucleic Acid Molecules

The nucleic acid samples obtained from the subject may be amplified fromthe clinical sample prior to detection. In one embodiment, DNA sequencesare amplified. In another embodiment, RNA sequences are amplified.

Any nucleic acid amplification method can be used. In one specific,non-limiting example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to amplifythe nucleic acid sequences associated with AMD. Other exemplary methodsinclude, but are not limited to, RT-PCR and transcription-mediatedamplification (TMA), cloning, polymerase chain reaction of specificalleles (PASA), ligase chain reaction, and nested polymerase chainreaction.

A pair of primers may be utilized in the amplification reaction. One orboth of the primers can be labeled, for example with a detectableradiolabel, fluorophore, or biotin molecule. The pair of primers mayinclude an upstream primer (which binds 5′ to the downstream primer) anda downstream primer (which binds 3′ to the upstream primer). The pair ofprimers used in the amplification reaction may be selective primerswhich permit amplification of a nucleic acid involved in AMD.

An additional pair of primers can be included in the amplificationreaction as an internal control. For example, these primers can be usedto amplify a “housekeeping” nucleic acid molecule, and serve to provideconfirmation of appropriate amplification. In another example, a targetnucleic acid molecule including primer hybridization sites can beconstructed and included in the amplification reactor. One of skill inthe art will readily be able to identify primer pairs to serve asinternal control primers.

Amplification products may be assayed in a variety of ways, includingsize analysis, restriction digestion followed by size analysis,detecting specific tagged oligonucleotide primers in the reactionproducts, allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) hybridization,sequencing, hybridization, and the like.

PCR-based detection assays include multiplex amplification of aplurality of polymorphisms simultaneously. For example, it is well knownin the art to select PCR primers to generate PCR products that do notoverlap in size and can be analyzed simultaneously. Alternatively, it ispossible to amplify different polymorphisms with primers that aredifferentially labeled and thus can each be detected. Other techniquesare known in the art to allow multiplex analyses of a plurality ofpolymorphisms. A fragment of a gene may be amplified to produce copiesand it may be determined whether copies of the fragment contain theparticular protective polymorphism or genotype.

Immunodetection of Protective Proteins

In one embodiment of the invention, a protein assay is carried out tocharacterize polymorphisms in a subject's C2 or BF genes, e.g., todetect or identify protective proteins. Methods that can be adapted fordetection of variant proteins are well known and include analyticalbiochemical methods such as electrophoresis (including capillaryelectrophoresis and two-dimensional electrophoresis), chromatographicmethods such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thinlayer chromatography (TLC), hyperdiffusion chromatography, massspectrometry, and various immunological methods such as fluid or gelprecipitin reactions, immunodiffusion (single or double),immunoelectrophoresis, radioimmnunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linkedimmunosorbent assays (ELISAs), immunofluorescent assays, westernblotting and others.

For example, a number of well established immunological binding assayformats suitable for the practice of the invention are known (see, e.g.,Harlow, E.; Lane, D. Antibodies: A laboratory manual. Cold SpringHarbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; 1988; and Ausubel et al.,(2004) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, NewYork N.Y. The assay may be, for example, competitive or non-conpetitive.Typically, immunological binding assays (or immunoassays) utilize a“capture agent” to specifically bind to and, often, immobilize theanalyte. In one embodiment, the capture agent is a moiety thatspecifically binds to a variant C2 or BF polypeptide or subsequence. Thebound protein may be detected using, for example, a detectably labeledanti-C2/BF antibody. In one embodiment, at least one of the antibodiesis specific for the variant form (e.g., does not bind to the wild-typeC2 or BF polypeptide.

Thus, in one aspect the method involves obtaining a biological samplefrom a subject (e.g., blood, serum, plasma, or urine); contacting thesample with a binding agent that distinguishes a protective andnonprotective form of C2 or BF, and detecting the formation of a complexbetween the binding agent and the nonprotective form of C2 or BF, ifpresent. It will be understood that panels of antibodies may be used todetect protective proteins in a patient sample.

The invention also provides antibodies that specifically binds aprotective C2 or DF protein but does not specifically bind a wild-typepolypeptide (i.e., a C2 or BF protein not associated with protection).The antibodies bind an epitope found in only the protective form. Forexample, an antibody may not bind a wild-type BF (encoded by GenbankAccession Nos. NM_(—)001710; AAB67977) or C2 (encoded by GenbankAccession Nos. NM_(—)000063; NP_(—)000054) but binds to a BF or C2variant, as described above (i.e., a protein having one of thepolymorphisms described herein as being protective for AMD). Forexample, the antibody may recognize a BF protein having glutamine atposition 32 or histidine at position 9 or a C2 with an aspatric acid atposition 318.

The antibodies can be polyclonal or monoclonal, and are made accordingto standard protocols. Antibodies can be made by injecting a suitableanimal with a protective protein or fragments thereof. Monoclonalantibodies are screened according to standard protocols (Koehler andMilstein 1975, Nature 256:495; Dower et al., WO 91/17271 and McCaffertyet al., WO 92/01047; and Vaughan et al., 1996, Nature Biotechnology, 14:309; and references provided below). Monoclonal antibodies may beassayed for specific immunoreactivity with the protective polypeptide,but not the corresponding wild-type polypeptide, using methods known inthe art. For methods, including antibody screening and subtractionmethods; see Harlow & Lane, Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual, Cold SpringHarbor Press, New York (1988); Current Protocols in Immunology (J. E.Coligan et al., eds., 1999, including supplements through 2005); Goding,Monoclonal Antibodies, Principles and Practice (2d ed.) Academic Press,New York (1986); Burioni et al., 1998, “A new subtraction technique formolecular cloning of rare antiviral antibody specificities from phagedisplay libraries” Res Virol. 149(5):327-30; Ames et al., 1994,Isolation of neutralizing anti-05a monoclonal antibodies from afilamentous phage monovalent Fab display library. J Immunol.152(9):4572-81; Shinohara et al., 2002, Isolation of monoclonalantibodies recognizing rare and dominant epitopes in plant vascular cellwalls by phage display subtraction. J Immunol Methods 264(1-2):187-94.Immunization or screening can be directed against a full-lengthprotective protein or, alternatively (and often more conveniently),against a peptide or polypeptide fragment comprising an epitope known todiffer between the variant and wild-type forms. Antibodies can beexpressed as tetramers containing two light and two heavy chains, asseparate heavy chains, light chains, as Fab, Fab′ F(ab′)2, and Fv, or assingle chain antibodies in which heavy and light chain variable domainsare linked through a spacer.

Amplification of Nucleic Acid Molecules

The nucleic acid samples obtained from the subject may be amplified fromthe clinical sample prior to detection. In one embodiment, DNA sequencesare amplified. In another embodiment, RNA sequences are amplified.

Any nucleic acid amplification method can be used. In one specific,non-limiting example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to amplifythe nucleic acid sequences associated with AMD. Other exemplary methodsinclude, but are not limited to, RT-PCR and transcription-mediatedamplification (TMA), cloning, polymerase chain reaction of specificalleles (PASA), ligase chain reaction, and nested polymerase chainreaction.

A pair of primers may be utilized in the amplification reaction. One orboth of the primers can be labeled, for example with a detectableradiolabel, fluorophore, or biotin molecule. The pair of primers mayinclude an upstream primer (which binds 5′ to the downstream primer) anda downstream primer (which binds 3′ to the upstream primer). The pair ofprimers used in the amplification reaction may be selective primerswhich permit amplification of a nucleic acid involved in AMD.

An additional pair of primers can be included in the amplificationreaction as an internal control. For example, these primers can be usedto amplify a “housekeeping” nucleic acid molecule, and serve to provideconfirmation of appropriate amplification. In another example, a targetnucleic acid molecule including primer hybridization sites can beconstructed and included in the amplification reactor. One of skill inthe art will readily be able to identify primer pairs to serve asinternal control primers.

Amplification products may be assayed in a variety of ways, includingsize analysis, restriction digestion followed by size analysis,detecting specific tagged oligonucleotide primers in the reactionproducts, allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO) hybridization,sequencing, hybridization, and the like.

PCR-based detection assays include multiplex amplification of aplurality of polymorphisms simultaneously. For example, it is well knownin the art to select PCR primers to generate PCR products that do notoverlap in size and can be analyzed simultaneously. Alternatively, it ispossible to amplify different polymorphisms with primers that aredifferentially labeled and thus can each be detected. Other techniquesare known in the art to allow multiplex analyses of a plurality ofpolymorphisms. A fragment of a gene may be amplified to produce copiesand it may be determined whether copies of the fragment contain theparticular protective polymorphism or genotype.

Complement Factor H (CFH)

The CFH gene is located on chromosome 1q in a region repeatedly linkedto AMD in family-based studies. Recently, three independent studies haverevealed that a polymorphism, a T→C substitution at nucleotide 1277 inexon 9, which results a tyrosine to histidine change (Y402H) in thecomplement factor H gene makes a substantial contribution to AMDsusceptibility (Klein et al. (2005) Science 308:385-389; Haines et al.(2005) Science. 308:419-421; Edwards et al. (2005) Science.308:421-424). These studies reported odd ratios for AMD ranging between3.3 and 4.6 for carriers of the C allele and between 3.3 and 7.4 for CChomozygotes. Subsequently, this association was confirmed by two otherstudies (Zareparsi et al. (2005) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77:149-153; Hagemanet al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102:7227-7232). In onestudy, seven other common SNPs were found to be associated with AMD inaddition to the Y402H polymorphism (Hageman et al. (2005) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102:7227-7232).

Pairwise linkage analysis showed that these seven polymorphisms were inlinkage disequilibrium and one common at-risk haplotype with a set ofthese polymorphisms were detected in 50% of cases versus 29% of controls[OR=2.46, 95% CI (1.95-3.11)]. Homozygotes for this haplotype were foundin 24.2% of cases and 8.3% of the controls. Also two common protectivehaplotypes were found in 34% of controls and 18% of cases [OR=0.48, 95%CI (0.33-0.69)] and [OR=0.54, 95% CI (0.33-0.69)].

Factor B and Complement Component 2

Activation of the alternative pathway is initiated by factor D-catalyzedcleavage of C3b-bound factor B (BF), resulting in the formation of theC3Bb complex (C3 convertase). This complex is stabilized by theregulatory protein properdin, whereas its dissociation is accelerated byregulatory proteins including CFH. BF and C2 are paralogous geneslocated only 500 bp apart on human chromosome 6p21. C2 functions in theclassical complement pathway. These two genes, along with genes encodingcomplement components 4A (C4A) and 4B (C4B), comprise a “complotype”(complement haplotype) that occupies approximately 100-120 kb betweenHLA-B and HLA-DR/DQ in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) classIII region.

Clinical Samples

Appropriate samples for use with the current disclosure in determining asubject's genetic predisposition to AMD include any conventionalclinical samples, including, but not limited to, blood orblood-fractions (such as serum or plasma), mouthwashes or buccalscrapes, chorionic villus biopsy samples, semen, Guthrie cards, eyefluid, sputum, lymph fluid, urine and tissue. Most simply, blood can bedrawn and DNA (or RNA) extracted from the cells of the blood. Alterationof a wild-type BF, C2, and/or CFH allele, whether, for example, by pointmutation or deletion, can be detected by any of the means discussedherein.

Techniques for acquisition of such samples are well known in the art(for example see Schluger et al. (1992) J. Exp. Med. 176:1327-33, forthe collection of serum samples). Serum or other blood fractions can beprepared in the conventional manner. For example, about 200 μL of serumcan be used for the extraction of DNA for use in amplificationreactions.

Once a sample has been obtained, the sample can be used directly,concentrated (for example by centrifugation or filtration), purified, orcombinations thereof, and an amplification reaction performed. Forexample, rapid DNA preparation can be performed using a commerciallyavailable kit (such as the InstaGene Matrix, BioRad, Hercules, Calif.;the NucliSens isolation kit, Organon Teknika, Netherlands). In oneexample, the DNA preparation method yields a nucleotide preparation thatis accessible to, and amenable to, nucleic acid amplification.

Microarrays

In particular examples, methods for detecting a polymorphism in the BF,C2, and/or CFH genes use the arrays disclosed herein. Such arrays caninclude nucleic acid molecules. In one example, the array includesnucleic acid oligonucleotide probes that can hybridize to polymorphicBF, C2, and/or CFH gene sequences, such as those polymorphisms discussedherein. Certain of such arrays (as well as the methods described herein)can include other polymorphisms associated with risk or protection fromdeveloping AMD, as well as other sequences, such as one or more probesthat recognize one or more housekeeping genes.

The arrays herein termed “AMD detection arrays,” are used to determinethe genetic susceptibility of a subject to developing AMD. In oneexample, a set of oligonucleotide probes is attached to the surface of asolid support for use in detection of a polymorphism in the BF, C2,and/or CFH genes, such as those amplified nucleic acid sequencesobtained from the subject. Additionally, if an internal control nucleicacid sequence was amplified in the amplification reaction (see above),an oligonucleotide probe can be included to detect the presence of thisamplified nucleic acid molecule.

The oligonucleotide probes bound to the array can specifically bindsequences amplified in an amplification reaction (such as under highstringency conditions). Oligonucleotides comprising at least 15, 20, 25,30, 35, 40, or more consecutive nucleotides of the BF, C2, and/or CFHgenes may be used.

The methods and apparatus in accordance with the present disclosure takeadvantage of the fact that under appropriate conditions oligonucleotidesform base-paired duplexes with nucleic acid molecules that have acomplementary base sequence. The stability of the duplex is dependent ona number of factors, including the length of the oligonucleotides, thebase composition, and the composition of the solution in whichhybridization is effected. The effects of base composition on duplexstability may be reduced by carrying out the hybridization in particularsolutions, for example in the presence of high concentrations oftertiary or quaternary amines.

The thermal stability of the duplex is also dependent on the degree ofsequence similarity between the sequences. By carrying out thehybridization at temperatures close to the anticipated T_(m)'s of thetype of duplexes expected to be formed between the target sequences andthe oligonucleotides bound to the array, the rate of formation ofmismatched duplexes may be substantially reduced.

The length of each oligonucleotide sequence employed in the array can beselected to optimize binding of target BF, C2, and/or CFH nucleic acidsequences. An optimum length for use with a particular BF, C2, and/orCFH nucleic acid sequence under specific screening conditions can bedetermined empirically. Thus, the length for each individual element ofthe set of oligonucleotide sequences including in the array can beoptimized for screening. In one example, oligonucleotide probes are fromabout 20 to about 35 nucleotides in length or about 25 to about 40nucleotides in length.

The oligonucleotide probe sequences forming the array can be directlylinked to the support, for example via the 5′- or 3′-end of the probe.In one example, the oligonucleotides are bound to the solid support bythe 5′ end. However, one of skill in the art can determine whether theuse of the 3′ end or the 5′ end of the oligonucleotide is suitable forbonding to the solid support. In general, the internal complementarityof an oligonucleotide probe in the region of the 3′ end and the 5′ enddetermines binding to the support. Alternatively, the oligonucleotideprobes can be attached to the support by non-BF, C2, and/or CFHsequences such as oligonucleotides or other molecules that serve asspacers or linkers to the solid support.

In another example, an array includes protein sequences, which includeat least one BF, C2, and/or CFH protein (or genes, cDNAs or otherpolynucleotide molecules including one of the listed sequences, or afragment thereof), or a fragment of such protein, or an antibodyspecific to such a protein or protein fragment. The proteins orantibodies forming the array can be directly linked to the support.Alternatively, the proteins or antibodies can be attached to the supportby spacers or linkers to the solid support.

Abnormalities in BF, C2, and/or CFH proteins can be detected using, forinstance, a BF, C2, and/or CFH protein-specific binding agent, which insome instances will be detectably labeled. In certain examples,therefore, detecting an abnormality includes contacting a sample fromthe subject with a BF, C2, and/or CFH protein-specific binding agent;and detecting whether the binding agent is bound by the sample andthereby measuring the levels of the BF, C2, and/or CFH protein presentin the sample, in which a difference in the level of BF, C2, and/or CFHprotein in the sample, relative to the level of BF, C2, and/or CFHprotein found an analogous sample from a subject not predisposed todeveloping AMD, or a standard BF, C2, and/or CFH protein level inanalogous samples from a subject not having a predisposition fordeveloping AMD, is an abnormality in that BF, C2, and/or CFH molecule.

In particular examples, the microarray material is formed from glass(silicon dioxide). Suitable silicon dioxide types for the solid supportinclude, but are not limited to: aluminosilicate, borosilicate, silica,soda lime, zinc titania and fused silica (for example see Schena,Microarray Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, N.J., 2003). Theattachment of nucleic acids to the surface of the glass can be achievedby methods known in the art, for example by surface treatments that formfrom an organic polymer. Particular examples include, but are notlimited to: polypropylene, polyethylene, polybutylene, polyisobutylene,polybutadiene, polyisoprene, polyvinylpyrrolidine,polytetrafluroethylene, polyvinylidene difluroide,polyfluoroethylene-propylene, polyethylenevinyl alcohol,polymethylpentene, polycholorotrifluoroethylene, polysulformes,hydroxylated biaxially oriented polypropylene, aminated biaxiallyoriented polypropylene, thiolated biaxially oriented polypropylene,etyleneacrylic acid, thylene methacrylic acid, and blends of copolymersthereof (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,985,567, herein incorporated by reference),organosilane compounds that provide chemically active amine or aldehydegroups, epoxy or polylysine treatment of the microarray. Another exampleof a solid support surface is polypropylene.

In general, suitable characteristics of the material that can be used toform the solid support surface include: being amenable to surfaceactivation such that upon activation, the surface of the support iscapable of covalently attaching a biomolecule such as an oligonucleotidethereto; amenability to “in situ” synthesis of biomolecules; beingchemically inert such that at the areas on the support not occupied bythe oligonucleotides are not amenable to non-specific binding, or whennon-specific binding occurs, such materials can be readily removed fromthe surface without removing the oligonucleotides.

In one example, the surface treatment is amine-containing silanederivatives. Attachment of nucleic acids to an amine surface occurs viainteractions between negatively charged phosphate groups on the DNAbackbone and positively charged amino groups (Schena, MicroarrayAnalysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, N.J., 2003, hereinincorporated by reference). In another example, reactive aldehyde groupsare used as surface treatment. Attachment to the aldehyde surface isachieved by the addition of 5′-amine group or amino linker to the DNA ofinterest. Binding occurs when the nonbonding electron pair on the aminelinker acts as a nucleophile that attacks the electropositive carbonatom of the aldehyde group.

A wide variety of array formats can be employed in accordance with thepresent disclosure. One example includes a linear array ofoligonucleotide bands, generally referred to in the art as a dipstick.Another suitable format includes a two-dimensional pattern of discretecells (such as 4096 squares in a 64 by 64 array). As is appreciated bythose skilled in the art, other array formats including, but not limitedto slot (rectangular) and circular arrays are equally suitable for use(see U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,185, herein incorporated by reference). In oneexample, the array is formed on a polymer medium, which is a thread,membrane or film. An example of an organic polymer medium is apolypropylene sheet having a thickness on the order of about 1 mm (0.001inch) to about 20 mm, although the thickness of the film is not criticaland can be varied over a fairly broad range. Particularly disclosed forpreparation of arrays at this time are biaxially oriented polypropylene(BOPP) films; in addition to their durability, BOPP films exhibit a lowbackground fluorescence. In a particular example, the array is a solidphase, Allele-Specific Oligonucleotides (ASO) based nucleic acid array.

The array formats of the present disclosure can be included in a varietyof different types of formats. A “format” includes any format to whichthe solid support can be affixed, such as microtiter plates, test tubes,inorganic sheets, dipsticks, and the like. For example, when the solidsupport is a polypropylene thread, one or more polypropylene threads canbe affixed to a plastic dipstick-type device; polypropylene membranescan be affixed to glass slides. The particular format is, in and ofitself, unimportant. All that is necessary is that the solid support canbe affixed thereto without affecting the functional behavior of thesolid support or any biopolymer absorbed thereon, and that the format(such as the dipstick or slide) is stable to any materials into whichthe device is introduced (such as clinical samples and hybridizationsolutions).

The arrays of the present disclosure can be prepared by a variety ofapproaches. In one example, oligonucleotide or protein sequences aresynthesized separately and then attached to a solid support (see U.S.Pat. No. 6,013,789, herein incorporated by reference). In anotherexample, sequences are synthesized directly onto the support to providethe desired array (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,554,501, herein incorporated byreference). Suitable methods for covalently coupling oligonucleotidesand proteins to a solid support and for directly synthesizing theoligonucleotides or proteins onto the support are known to those workingin the field; a summary of suitable methods can be found in Matson etal. (1994) Anal. Biochem. 217:306-10. In one example, theoligonucleotides are synthesized onto the support using conventionalchemical techniques for preparing oligonucleotides on solid supports(such as see PCT Publication Nos. WO 85/01051 and WO 89/10977, or U.S.Pat. No. 5,554,501, each of which are herein incorporated by reference).

A suitable array can be produced using automated means to synthesizeoligonucleotides in the cells of the array by laying down the precursorsfor the four bases in a predetermined pattern. Briefly, amultiple-channel automated chemical delivery system is employed tocreate oligonucleotide probe populations in parallel rows (correspondingin number to the number of channels in the delivery system) across thesubstrate. Following completion of oligonucleotide synthesis in a firstdirection, the substrate can then be rotated by 90° to permit synthesisto proceed within a second (2°) set of rows that are now perpendicularto the first set. This process creates a multiple-channel array whoseintersection generates a plurality of discrete cells.

In particular examples, the oligonucleotide probes on the array includeone or more labels, that permit detection of oligonucleotideprobe:target sequence hybridization complexes.

Kits

The present disclosure provides for kits that can be used to determinewhether a subject, such as an otherwise healthy human subject, isgenetically predisposed to AMD. Such kits allow one to determine if asubject has one or more genetic mutations or polymorphisms in BF, C2 orCFH gene sequences.

The kits contain reagents useful for determining the presence or absenceof at least one polymorphism in a subject's BF, C2 or CFH genes, such asprobes or primers that selectively hybridize to a BF, C2 or CFHpolymorphic sequence identified herein. Such kits can be used with themethods described herein to determine a subject's BF, C2, or CFHgenotype or haplotype.

Oligonucleotide probes and/or primers may be supplied in the form of akit for use in detection of a specific BF, C2, or CFH sequence, such asa SNP or haplotype described herein, in a subject. In such a kit, anappropriate amount of one or more of the oligonucleotide primers isprovided in one or more containers. The oligonucleotide primers may beprovided suspended in an aqueous solution or as a freeze-dried orlyophilized powder, for instance. The container(s) in which theoligonucleotide(s) are supplied can be any conventional container thatis capable of holding the supplied form, for instance, microfuge tubes,ampoules, or bottles. In some applications, pairs of primers may beprovided in pre-measured single use amounts in individual, typicallydisposable, tubes or equivalent containers. With such an arrangement,the sample to be tested for the presence of a BF, C2, or CFHpolymorphism can be added to the individual tubes and amplificationcarried out directly.

The amount of each oligonucleotide primer supplied in the kit can be anyappropriate amount, depending for instance on the market to which theproduct is directed. For instance, if the kit is adapted for research orclinical use, the amount of each oligonucleotide primer provided wouldlikely be an amount sufficient to prime several PCR amplificationreactions. Those of ordinary skill in the art know the amount ofoligonucleotide primer that is appropriate for use in a singleamplification reaction. General guidelines may for instance be found inInnis et al. (PCR Protocols, A Guide to Methods and Applications,Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif., 1990), Sambrook et al. (InMolecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989),and Ausubel et al. (In Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, GreenePubl. Assoc. and Wiley-Intersciences, 1992).

A kit may include more than two primers, in order to facilitate the invitro amplification of BF, C2, or CFH-encoding sequences, for instance aspecific target BF, C2, or CFH gene or the 5′ or 3′ flanking regionthereof.

In some embodiments, kits may also include the reagents necessary tocarry out nucleotide amplification reactions, including, for instance,DNA sample preparation reagents, appropriate buffers (e.g., polymerasebuffer), salts (e.g., magnesium chloride), and deoxyribonucleotides(dNTPs).

Kits may in addition include either labeled or unlabeled oligonucleotideprobes for use in detection of BF, C2, or CFH polymorphisms orhaplotypes. In certain embodiments, these probes will be specific for apotential polymorphic site that may be present in the target amplifiedsequences. The appropriate sequences for such a probe will be anysequence that includes one or more of the identified polymorphic sites,such that the sequence the probe is complementary to a polymorphic siteand the surrounding BF, C2, or CFH sequence. By way of example, suchprobes are of at least 6 nucleotides in length, and the polymorphic siteoccurs at any position within the length of the probe. It is oftenbeneficial to use longer probes, in order to ensure specificity. Thus,in some embodiments, the probe is at least 8, at least 10, at least 12,at least 15, at least 20, at least 30 nucleotides or longer.

It may also be advantageous to provide in the kit one or more controlsequences for use in the amplification reactions. The design ofappropriate positive control sequences is well known to one of ordinaryskill in the appropriate art. By way of example, control sequences maycomprise human (or non-human) BF, C2, or CFH nucleic acid molecule(s)with known sequence at one or more target SNP positions, such as thosedescribed herein. Controls may also comprise non-BF, C2, or CFH nucleicacid molecules.

In some embodiments, kits may also include some or all of the reagentsnecessary to carry out RT-PCR in vitro amplification reactions,including, for instance, RNA sample preparation reagents (including forexample, an RNase inhibitor), appropriate buffers (for example,polymerase buffer), salts (for example, magnesium chloride), anddeoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs).

Such kits may in addition include either labeled or unlabeledoligonucleotide probes for use in detection of the in vitro amplifiedtarget sequences. The appropriate sequences for such a probe will be anysequence that falls between the annealing sites of the two providedoligonucleotide primers, such that the sequence the probe iscomplementary to is amplified during the PCR reaction. In certainembodiments, these probes will be specific for a potential polymorphismthat may be present in the target amplified sequences.

It may also be advantageous to provide in the kit one or more controlsequences for use in the RT-PCR reactions. The design of appropriatepositive control sequences is well known to one of ordinary skill in theappropriate art.

Kits for the detection or analysis of BF, C2, or CFH protein expression(such as over- or under-expression, or expression of a specific isoform)are also encompassed. Such kits may include at least one target proteinspecific binding agent (for example, a polyclonal or monoclonal antibodyor antibody fragment that specifically recognizes a BF, C2, or CFHprotein, or a specific polymorphic form of a BF, C2, or CFH protein) andmay include at least one control (such as a determined amount of targetBF, C2, or CFH protein, or a sample containing a determined amount ofBF, C2, or CFH protein). The BF, C2, or CFH-protein specific bindingagent and control may be contained in separate containers. Theantibodies may have the ability to distinguish between polymorphic formsof BF, CD and/or CFH protein.

BF, C2, or CFH protein or isoform expression detection kits may alsoinclude a means for detecting BF, C2, or CFH:binding agent complexes,for instance the agent may be detectably labeled. If the detectableagent is not labeled, it may be detected by second antibodies or proteinA, for example, which may also be provided in some kits in one or moreseparate containers. Such techniques are well known.

Additional components in specific kits may include instructions forcarrying out the assay. Instructions will allow the tester to determineBF, C2, or CFH expression level. Reaction vessels and auxiliary reagentssuch as chromogens, buffers, enzymes, etc. may also be included in thekits. The instructions can provide calibration curves or charts tocompare with the determined (for example, experimentally measured)values.

Also provided are kits that allow differentiation between individualswho are homozygous versus heterozygous for specific SNPs (or haplotypes)of the BF, C2, or CFH genes as described herein. Examples of such kitsprovide the materials necessary to perform oligonucleotide ligationassays (OLA), as described in Nickerson et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A. 87:8923-8927. In specific embodiments, these kits containone or more microtiter plate assays, designed to detect polymorphism(s)in a BF, C2, or CFH sequence of a subject, as described herein.Instructions in these kits will allow the tester to determine whether aspecified BF, C2, or CFH allele is present, and whether it is homozygousor heterozygous. It may also be advantageous to provide in the kit oneor more control sequences for use in the OLA reactions. The design ofappropriate positive control sequences is well known to one of ordinaryskill in the appropriate art.

The kit may involve the use of a number of assay formats including thoseinvolving nucleic acid binding, such binding to filters, beads, ormicrotiter plates and the like. Techniques may include dot blots, RNAblots, DNA blots, PCR, RFLP, and the like.

Microarray-based kits are also provided. These microarray kits may be ofuse in genotyping analyses. In general, these kits include one or moreoligonucleotides provided immobilized on a substrate, for example at anaddressable location. The kit also includes instructions, usuallywritten instructions, to assist the user in probing the array. Suchinstructions can optionally be provided on a computer readable medium

Kits may additionally include one or more buffers for use during assayof the provided array. For instance, such buffers may include a lowstringency wash, a high stringency wash, and/or a stripping solution.These buffers may be provided in bulk, where each container of buffer islarge enough to hold sufficient buffer for several probing or washing orstripping procedures. Alternatively, the buffers can be provided inpre-measured aliquots, which would be tailored to the size and style ofarray included in the kit. Certain kits may also provide one or morecontainers in which to carry out array-probing reactions.

Kits may in addition include one or more containers of detectormolecules, such as antibodies or probes (or mixtures of antibodies,mixtures of probes, or mixtures of the antibodies and probes), fordetecting biomolecules captured on the array. The kit may also includeeither labeled or unlabeled control probe molecules, to provide forinternal tests of either the labeling procedure or probing of the array,or both. The control probe molecules may be provided suspended in anaqueous solution or as a freeze-dried or lyophilized powder, forinstance. The container(s) in which the controls are supplied can be anyconventional container that is capable of holding the supplied form, forinstance, microfuge tubes, ampoules, or bottles. In some applications,control probes may be provided in pre-measured single use amounts inindividual, typically disposable, tubes or equivalent containers.

The amount of each control probe supplied in the kit can be anyparticular amount, depending for instance on the market to which theproduct is directed. For instance, if the kit is adapted for research orclinical use, sufficient control probe(s) likely will be provided toperform several controlled analyses of the array. Likewise, wheremultiple control probes are provided in one kit, the specific probesprovided will be tailored to the market and the accompanying kit. Incertain embodiments, a plurality of different control probes will beprovided in a single kit, each control probe being from a different typeof specimen found on an associated array (for example, in a kit thatprovides both eukaryotic and prokaryotic specimens, aprokaryote-specific control probe and a separate eukaryote-specificcontrol probe may be provided).

In some embodiments of the current invention, kits may also include thereagents necessary to carry out one or more probe-labeling reactions.The specific reagents included will be chosen in order to satisfy theend user's needs, depending on the type of probe molecule (for example,DNA or RNA) and the method of labeling (for example, radiolabelincorporated during probe synthesis, attachable fluorescent tag, etc.).

Further kits are provided for the labeling of probe molecules for use inassaying arrays provided herein. Such kits may optionally include anarray to be assayed by the so labeled probe molecules.

The disclosure is illustrated by the following non-limiting Examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Materials and Methods

Subjects: Two independent groups of AMD cases and age-matched controlsof European-American descent over the age of 60 were used in this study.These groups consisted of 350 unrelated subjects with clinicallydocumented AMD (mean age 79.5+/−7.8) and 114 unrelated, controlindividuals (mean age 78.4+/−7.4; matched by age and ethnicity) from theUniversity of Iowa, and 548 unrelated subjects with clinicallydocumented AMD (mean age 71.32+/−8.9 years), and 275 unrelated, matchedby age and ethnicity, controls (mean age 68.84+/−8.6 years) fromColumbia University. Subjects were examined by trained ophthalmologists.

Stereoscopic fundus photographs were graded according to standardizedclassification systems as described in Hageman, 2005, supra; Bird et al.(1995) Surv. Ophthalmol. 39:367-74; and Klayer et al. (2001) Invest.Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42:2237-41. Controls did not exhibit anydistinguishing signs of macular disease nor did they have a known familyhistory of AMD (stages 0 and 1a). AMD subject were subdivided intophenotypic categories based on the classification of their most severeeye at the time of their recruitment. Genomic DNA was generated fromperipheral blood leukocytes using QIAamp DNA Blood Maxi kits (Qiagen,Valencia, Calif.).

Studies were conducted under the protocols approved by the InstitutionalReview Boards of Columbia University and the University of Iowa.Informed consent was obtained from all study subjects prior toparticipation.

Immunohistochemistry: Posterior poles were processed, sectioned andlabeled with antibody directed against factor Ba (Quidel), as describedin Anderson et al. (2002) Am. J. Ophthalmol. 134:411-31. Adjacentsections were incubated with secondary antibody alone, to serve ascontrols. Some immunolabeled specimens were prepared and viewed byconfocal laser scanning microscopy, as described (Anderson et al., 2002,supra).

Mutation Screening and Analysis: Coding and adjacent intronic regions ofBF and C2 were examined for variants using SSCP analyses, denaturinghigh performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) and direct sequencing.Primers for SSCP, DHPLC and DNA sequencing analyses were designed toamplify each exon and its adjacent intronic regions using MacVectorsoftware (San Diego, Calif.). PCR-derived amplicons were screened forsequence variation, as described in Allikmets et al. (1997) Science277:1805-1807 and in Hayashi et al. (2004) Ophthalmic Genet. 25:111-9.All changes detected by SSCP and DHPLC were confirmed by bidirectionalsequencing according to standard protocols.

Genotyping: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were discoveredthrough data mining (Ensembl database, dbSNP; Celera Discovery System)and through sequencing. Assays for variants with greater than 10%frequency in test populations were purchased from Applied Biosystems asValidated, Inventoried SNP Assays-On-Demand, or submitted to an AppliedBiosystems Assays-By-Design pipeline. The technique employed wasidentical to that described in Hageman et al., 2005, supra. Briefly, 5ng of DNA were subjected to 50 cycles on an ABI 9700 384-wellthermocycler, and plates were read in an Applied Biosystems 7900 HTSequence Detection System.

Statistical Analysis: Genotypes were tabulated in Microsoft EXCEL andpresented to SPSS (SPSS, Inc.) for contingency table analysis asdescribed in Hageman et al., 2005, supra, and Klayer et al., 2001,supra. Compliance to Hardy7 Weinberg Equilibrium was checked usingSAS/Genetics (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, N.C.), and all SNPs in bothcases and controls survived a cut off of p<0.05. For haplotypeestimation we used snphap (written by David Clayton; Cambridge Institutefor Medical Research, Cambridge, United Kingdom), downloaded from theCambridge Institute for Medical Research websitehttp://www-gene.cimr.cam.ac.uk/clayton/software/), SNPEM (Written by Dr.Nicholas Schork and M. Daniele Fallin and obtained from D. Fallin), andPHASE version 2.11 (written by Matthew Stephens; University ofWashington, Seattle, Wash., and available from his web site atwww.stat.washington.edu/stephens/software.html). The haplotype analysisstrategy used was first to obtain haplotype estimates using theExpectation Maximization (EM) or Gibbs sampling algorithm, second, toidentify htSNPs representing a minimal informative set within a regionof linkage disequilibrium, and third, to assess these for significantassociation with AMD. Linkage disequilibrium was assessed (not shown)using the graphical tools available at the Innate Immunity PGA website(www.innateimmunity.net). All p-values are two-tailed and X2 values arepresented as asymptotic significance. Overall type I error rates (α),were retrospectively calculated using the method of Benjamini andHochberg (1995) J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B 57:289-300 as implemented at theInnate Immunity PGA website(https://innateimmunity.net/IIPGA2/Bioinformatics/multipletestfdrform),and were below 2×10⁻³.

Significant haplotypes were subjected to permutation testing in bothSNPEM and PHASE. The protective SNP model drawn in FIG. 2A was presentedto Exemplar 2.2 (available on the Sapio sciences website athttp://www.sapiosciences.com) and statistically evaluated by thatsoftware for fitness against the three datasets (Iowa, Columbia andCombined) presented in FIG. 2B. Generation of the genetic algorithm (GA)derived model (shown as FIG. 2C) involved Exemplar software. The GAoptions were set to: 1500 AND/OR models, of 15 iterations each, with amodel size no larger than 5 (which permits 16 possible genotypes).Further details of the genetic algorithm implementation and significancetesting are included as Example 2.

A Classification & Regression Tree Analysis was performed with the SPSSversion 14.0 statistical package with the appropriate module on theColumbia, Iowa and combined data recoded as with (+) or without (−)minor alleles. Models were automatically generated using each of thethree datasets that incorporated both CFH and C2/BF loci as contributorsto the dependent outcome.

Results

All 18 BF exons, including 50-80 bp of flanking intronic regions, wereanalyzed initially by denaturing HPLC in approximately 90 AMD cases and90 controls from a cohort ascertained at Columbia University. Seventeensequence variants, including eight missense changes, were identified andthe L9H (rs4151667) and R32Q (rs641153) alleles were more frequent incontrols than in cases (Table 1). Haplotype-tagging SNPs (htSNPs) withinBF and its adjacent homolog C2 were identified (FIG. 1) and genotyped ina Columbia University cohort comprised of 548 AMD cases and 275controls. These analyses revealed four variants that were significantlyassociated with AMD. The L9H variant in BF, which was in nearly completelinkage disequilibrium (LD) with the E318D variant in C2 (rs9332739),was highly protective for AMD (X2=13.8 P=0.00020, OR=0.37 [95%CI=0.18-0.60]). The R32Q allele in BF was in nearly complete LD with thers547154 SNP in intron 10 of C2, and was also highly protective(X2=33.7, P=6.43×10-9, OR=0.32 [95% CI=0.21-0.48]).

Genotyping of an independent cohort of 350 cases and 114 controls fromthe University of Iowa confirmed these findings. For example, the C2E318D/BF L9H SNP pair was significantly associated with AMD in thiscohort (X2=10.6, P=0.0012, OR=0.34 [95% CI=0.18-0.67]. To analyzehaplotypes across the C2 and BF loci, the data from the two cohorts werecombined (Table 2). The common haplotype (H1, FIG. 1) conferred asignificant risk for AMD (X2=10.3, P=0.0013, OR=1.32 [95% CI=1.1-1.6]).The haplotype tagged by the BF R32Q SNP (H7), compared to all otherhaplotypes, was highly protective for AMD (X2=26.9, P=2.1×10-7, OR=0.45[95% CI=0.33-0.61] and the C2 E318D/BF L9H-containing haplotype (H10)was also significantly protective (X2=21.6, P=3.4×10-6, OR=0.36 [95%CI=0.23-0.56]) (FIG. 1). The H1 haplotype, when employed as thereference haplotype, produced slightly more significant results for H7(X2=29.6, OR=0.42 [0.32-0.58]) and for H10 (X2=24.9 OR=0.33[0.21-0.52]). Analysis with the SNPEM program also demonstrated that thesame haplotypes were significantly associated with the disease,confirming the hypothesis that alleles in the C2 and/or BF gene arepredictive of risk for AMD. Individuals with the two protectivehaplotypes (either homozygous for H7, H10, or 7/10 compoundheterozygotes) were found in 3.4% of the controls, but in only 0.77% ofthe cases (X2=12.2, P=0.00048, OR=0.22 [0.087-0.56]). The odds ratio ofsubjects with two protective alleles was approximately half of that ofthe subjects with one protective allele, consistent with a co-dominantmodel.

The observed associations were highly significant when the entire AMDsubject cohort was compared to controls, or when major subtypes of AMD,including early AMD (eAMD), choroidal neovascularization (CNV) andgeographic atrophy (GA), were analyzed separately. The GA group (a totalof 133 subjects from the 2 cohorts) deviated from the general trend insome cases, similar to our observations related to CFH (Hageman et al.,2005, supra). Specifically, the haplotype tagged by the R32Q alleledemonstrated the strongest protection against the disease—OR was 0.22when the GA group was compared to controls vs. 0.45 when the rest of AMDsamples were subjected to the same analysis. Although this deviation maybe significant in terms of varying etiology of the disease, it did notreach statistical significance (the confidence intervals overlapped),most likely due to the small number of GA cases.

Combined analyses were initially performed by stratifying the subjectsaccording to status at the CFH Y402H allele. Protection conferred byC2/BF was strongest in CFH 402H homozygotes (OR=0.27), intermediate in402H/Y heterozygotes (OR=0.36), and weakest in 402Y homozygotes(OR=0.44). However, the confidence intervals of all these estimatesoverlapped. The effect was principally due to a trend in which thefrequency of C2/BF protective alleles was greatest in 402H homozygotes(the “risk” genotype); 40% of these subjects in the control cohortcarried at least one protective allele. In contrast, controls that were402H/Y or 402Y had progressively lower frequencies of C2/BF protection(32% and 26% respectively). In other words, individuals at high risk dueto their CFH genotype, who did not develop AMD, have a high frequency ofprotective allele(s) at the C2/BF locus.

To identify possible combinations of CFH and C2/BF SNPs that areprotective for AMD, as suggested by the individual SNP analysis, theanalyses of the available data was performed by two means; first by anempirical hand-built model and then by a machine-learned model using theExemplar software (FIG. 2). The first model was a hypothesized(hand-built) model, as one would create by an empirical inspection ofthe data (FIG. 2A). The model description is provided as panel A, and isinterpreted as giving four possible combinations of genotypes that wouldprotect from AMD (combinations that result in the model being “true”).When this model was applied against the samples, the distributions shownin panel B were obtained separately for each cohort and for the combinedcohorts (FIG. 2B). The case percentage is the percentage of cases forwhich the model was false; in other words, they did not have protectionas described by the model. The control percentage is the percentage ofcontrols that did have the protective factors described by the model,meaning the model was true. These distributions were subjected tosignificance testing by Fisher's exact test and evidenced p-values ofP=0.00237, P=4.28×10-8 and P=7.90×10-10, respectively. Following this,the Exemplar software was tasked to generate a protective model thatprovided a “best fit” to the data using a machine-learning method calledGenetic Algorithms; i.e., we tested the hypothesis that themachine-learning software can outperform the hand-built model. Modelswere learned on the Columbia cohort; the resulting fittest models wereretained and then applied to the Iowa cohort as a verification test(out-of-sample verification) on an independent cohort. Finally, themodels were applied to the combined sample set. The resulting bestperforming model is depicted in FIG. 2C. This model describes fourpossible individual (or combinations of) genotypes that would protectfrom AMD (i.e. combinations resulting in the model being “true”). Themodel performance is shown in FIG. 2D for the Iowa, Columbia, andcombined cohorts, respectively. These distributions were subjected tosignificance testing by Fisher's exact test and evidenced p-values ofP=7.49×10⁻⁵, P=2.97×10⁻²² and P=1.69×10⁻²³, respectively. The method wasfurther validated by randomizing the case and control designations andperforming 3000 permutations of the dataset. The actual data was moresignificant than any of these permutations.

In summary, combined analysis of these haplotypes with the variation inCFH by the Exemplar software revealed that 56% of unaffected controlsharbor at least one protective CFH or C2/BF haplotype, while 74% of AMDsubjects lack any protective haplotype at these loci. Inspection of thedata shows that approximately 60% of the risk in cases and 65% of theprotection of controls is due to the effect of the CFH locus, and theremainder (40% and 35%, respectively) to the C2/BF locus. Themachine-learned model outperformed the hand built model, allowing forsignificantly better predictions of a clinical outcome. A classificationand regression tree (C&RT) analysis provided results that support therole of C2/BF in AMD, producing similar trees as did the GeneticAlgorithm analysis. Using the Columbia dataset alone, the C&RT modelaccounts for 37% of cases through C2/BF allele presence, using Iowa,36%, and the combined analysis produced a slightly weaker effect of 27%.These estimates are all consistent with the 35-40% estimatedcontribution of the C2/BF locus from the genetic algorithm analysis. Thedetailed description of the methods and specific analyses are providedin the Example 2.

BF and C2 are expressed in the neural retina, RPE, and choroid. PCRamplicons of the appropriate sizes for BF and C2 gene products weredetected from isolated RPE, the RPE/choroid complex, and the neuralretina, from human donor eyes with (two donors aged 67 and 94) andwithout (two donors aged 69 and 82) AMD (data not shown). BF protein waspresent in ocular drusen, within Bruch's membrane, and less prominentlyin the choroidal stroma (FIG. 3A). Ba (a BF-derived peptide)immunoreactivity was less pronounced, but distinctly present in patchesassociated with RPE cells and throughout Bruch's membrane (FIG. 3B). Thedistribution of BF is similar to that of C3 (FIG. 3C), both of which areessentially identical to that of CFH and C5b-9 (Hageman et al., 2005,supra).

In summary, these data show that variants the complementpathway-associated genes C2 and BF are significantly associated withAMD. Protective haplotypes in the C2/BF locus contain nonsynonymous SNPsin the BF gene, an important activator of the alternative complementpathway. Available data confirms the hypothesis that the AMD phenotypemay be modulated by abnormal BF activity. Indeed, the BF proteincontaining glutamine at position 32 (resulting from one of the two BFSNPs tagging a protective haplotype), has been shown to have reducedhemolytic activity compared to the more frequent arginine 32 form (Lokkiand Koskimies (1991) Immunogenetics 34:242-6). The same study did notdocument a functional effect for the R32W variant, which was notassociated with AMD in the current study. Based on these data, wesuggest that an activator with reduced enzymatic activity provides alower risk for chronic complement response that can lead to drusenformation and AMD. This hypothesis is compatible with our previousproposal that insufficient inhibition of the alternative complementcascade due to variation in CFH results in chronic damage at the retinalpigment epithelium/Bruch's membrane interface (Hageman et al., 2005,supra; Anderson, 2002, supra; Hageman, 2001, supra). Another BF htSNP,L9H, resides in the signal peptide. While the functional consequence ofthis variant has not been directly demonstrated, this variant couldmodulate BF secretion.

The genetic and functional data suggests that variation in BF is likelycausal for the observed association with AMD. This is based on the factthat the two haplotype-tagging variants in BF are non-conservative andone of the two is documented to have a direct functional relevance (areduced hemolytic activity), whereas the variants in C2 are aconservative change and an intronic SNP. In addition, BF participatesdirectly in the alternative pathway, a pathway that also involves CFH. Adirect role cannot be ruled out for C2, however, particularly since bothC2 and BF regulate the production of C3. C2 and BF have nearly identicalmodular structures, including serine protease domains within theircarboxy termini and three CCP modules within their amino termini.Additional support for BF being the gene involved in pathogenesis of AMDcomes from studies of drusen composition. While the majority of proteinsinvolved in the alternative pathway (CFH, BF, etc.) are found in drusen,their analogs from the classical pathway, such as C2 and C4, are not(Mullins et al. (2000) Faseb J. 14:835-46; Crabb et al. (2002) Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99:14682-7). These data further suggest that theSNPs in C2 gene are associated with AMD due to extensive LD with BF.

Several common functional variants in both C2 and BF have been described(Davis and Forristal (1980) J. Lab. Clin. Med. 96:633-9; Raum et al.(1979) Am. J. Hum. Genet. 31:35-41.; Alper et al. (2003) J. Clin.Immunol. 23:297-305), but most of these are rare. All missense alleleswith frequencies greater than 2% in European populations as judged fromthe re-sequencing data on both genes available at the SeattleSNPsproject website (www.pga.mbt.washington.edu/) have been analyzed.Moreover, no additional nonsynonymous variants in either gene have beenfound after complete sequencing of several HLA haplotypes, includingexamples of our haplotypes H2, H5, and H7 (Stewart et al. (2004) GenomeRes. 14:1176-87).

Because C2 and BF reside in the HLA locus together with many other genesinvolved in inflammation, one must consider the possibility that theassociations observed in this study are due to LD with adjacent loci(Larsen and Alper (2004) Curr. Opin. Immunol. 16:660-7). Five lines ofevidence, however, suggest that the C2/BF locus is the main contributorto the observed association. First, only modest LD between C2/BF andadjacent class III loci is observed in HapMap data. Second, MHC class IIloci and BF haplotypes H7 and H10 do not show strong LD. Third, in awhole genome scan performed by Klein et al. (2005) Science 308:385-9,the MHC locus did not demonstrate a statistically significantassociation with AMD. Their analysis, performed with the AffymetrixMapping 100K Array, included 80 SNPs across the MHC locus; however, thearray did not contain any of the 8 SNPs typed in this study(https://www.affymetrix.com/analysis/netaffx/index.affx). Fourth,estimated recombination rates from HapMap data indicate regions of highrecombination on both sides of the C2/BF locus (Myers et al. (2005)Science 310:321-324). Finally, the single published study on MHC in AMDdemonstrates modest protection for the class I locus B*4001 (P=0.027)and the class II locus DRB1*1301 (P=0.009) (Goverdhan et al. (2005)Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46:1726-34). Since the protective allelesidentified in this study were associated with AMD at a substantiallyhigher statistical significance it is very unlikely that the C2/BFassociation is due to LD with these and/or other loci in the MHC.

TABLE 1 Sequence variants in the BF gene detected by DHPLC screening.Nucleotide Amino Acid Allele Frequency in Cases Exon Changes Changes AMDTotal N GA E Controls 1 c.26 T > A L9H 18/1092 10/546  2/178  6/36823/546  2 c.94 C > T R32W 109/1096  52/546  20/182  37/368 55/550  2c.95 G > A R32Q 44/1096 21/546  4/182 19/368 61/550  3 c.405 C > T Y135Y1/184 1/184 0/184 4 c.504 G > A P168P 4/184 4/184 6/184 4 c.600 C > TS200S 0/184 0/184 2/184 5 c.673 C > T Y252Y 2/184 2/184 5/184 5 c.754G > A G252S 7/184 7/184 6/184 6 c.897 + 17C > A 2/184 2/184 1/184 8c.1137 C > T R379R 1/184 1/184 0/184 9 c.1169 − 35T > A 1/184 1/1840/184 12 c.1598 A > G K533R 3/184 3/184 9/184 14 c.1693 A > G K565E9/182 9/182 4/184 14 c.1697 A > C E566A 9/182 9/182 4/184 15 c.1856 −14C > T 13/182  13/182  21/184  15 c.1933 G > A V645I 1/182 1/182 0/18418 c.*23 C > T 4/182 4/182 7/182

TABLE 2 Association analysis of C2/BF variants in combined Columbia andIowa cohorts # # Gene dbSNP# Location Cases Controls X² P OR 95% CI C2rs9332739 E318D 897 381 21.2 4.14E−06 0.36 0.23-0.56 C2 rs547154 IVS 10894 382 28.7 8.45E−08 0.44 0.33-0.60 BF rs4151667 L9H 903 383 21.33.93E−06 0.36 0.23-0.56 BF rs641153 R32Q 551 269 33.7 6.43E−09 0.320.21-0.48 BF rs1048709 R150R 892 381 0.12 NS BF rs4151659 K565E 902 3841.1 NS BF rs2072633 IVS 17 893 379 4.05 0.044 0.84 0.70-0.99

Example 2 Exemplar Statistical Methods

Sapio Sciences collaborated with the NO to analyze genotyping data. TheNCI provided ˜1360 total samples with 10 bi-allelic SNP's genotyped. Thedata was presented to Sapio with numeric representations of alleles. Ascript was written to convert the data to Exemplar-friendly format, byconverting the alleles to genotype numeric representations (“1 1” became“1” for AA, “1 2” became “2” for AB and “2 2” became “3” for BB, “0 0”was a nocall and was converted to “0”) and to dedup the samples. Thephenotype was age-related macular degeneration (AMD). There were severalsubclasses of AMD identified, but for this analysis the data was used asa whole to determine if there was a common genotype underlying thevarious AMD phenotypes.

Sapio Sciences utilized its Exemplar Genotyping Analysis Suite toanalyze the supplied data. Exemplar performs several association basedanalyses for case-control studies. The modules utilized for the analysiswere:

Genetic Algorithm Module (GA Module)—This module implements a machinelearning approach to finding logical combinations of SNP's (models)based studies.

Association Study Module (AS Module)—This module calculates many usefulstatistics like Chi Square, Yates, Fisher Exact, Odds Ratio, Relativerisk, Linkage Disequilibrium, D′, r2 and Haplotype Estimates.

Exemplar typically finds models correlating with a phenotype. In otherwords, the models predict the factors contributing to getting thephenotype, not to protection from it, although protective factors can beinferred from the models. For example, if a model indicates that sampleshaving . . . RS001 as BB OR RS001 as AB . . . correlate with having thephenotype, then it can be inferred that those with RS001 as AA areprotected from the phenotype.

Exemplar models are logical combinations of SNP's. The models can behand-built to test hypothesis, or the Genetic Algorithm can be utilizedto attempt to find models with high utility. Genetic Algorithms are amachine learning method that excels at finding patterns within largedata spaces. The GA utilizes the two-thirds, one-third, validationmethod. This is accomplished by randomly assigning ⅔ of the cases andcontrols to the training set. The GA then learns models on this trainingset. When it completes the learning phase, it applies the bestperforming models to the test set (the remaining ⅓ of data). The bestperforming models across test and training are returned to the user. Inthis study, even though only a small number of SNP's were beinginterrogated, the large number of samples made it difficult for a humanto effectively discern patterns that would be applicable across all thedata. For this reason, the GA was utilized to find more complex patternswith higher utility. The benefit of these types of models overtraditional approaches is in their ability to incorporate multiple locifrom across the genome in making a prediction. This enables one model toidentify what is often a complex interaction of polymorphisms thatcorrelate with outcomes.

This study was unique in that its focus was on finding models that wereprotective against AMD. As this deviates from the normal Exemplarapproach of finding additive models, a change had to be made to theinput data. By simply instructing Exemplar that the cases were controls,and vice versa, it would then learn models that demonstrated why asample would not get the phenotype. In other words, it would be findingthe combinations of SNP's that conferred protection.

Study Group information: Data was provided from two separate cohorts,the Iowa cohort and the Columbia cohort. The Columbia data was a largergroup with about 830 total samples of which 560 were cases and 270 werecontrols. The Iowa cohort had about 529 total samples with 414 cases and115 controls. Having two sample groups allowed model building to be donewith the GA Module on one cohort and the efficacy of the resultantmodels out-of-sample to be tested on the remaining cohort.

Study Results: Multiple statistics were generated for each SNP/genotypein the input dataset. Statistics were generated by building 2×2contingency tables and doing proper counts of genotypes (Note that thisis not allele counts, but genotype counts where the two genotypes notbeing calculated are collapsed into one value). The values for each cellof the 2×2 table are provided in the tables under the headings CaseTrue, Case False, Control True, Control False. All statistics weretwo-tailed calculations.

Tables 3 through 6 show statistics on the Iowa and Columbia cohort sideby side. NOTE: The “Category” column is the genotype where: 1corresponds to AA, 2 to AB and 3 to BB. Table 7 shows statistics for thecombined cohorts.

TABLE 3 Columbia and Iowa Side-By-Side Chi Square Statistics Columbia -Chi Square Iowa - Chi Square Case Case Control Control Case Case ControlControl SNP Category Score True False True False SNP Category Score TrueFalse True False RS1061147 3 58.05 110 433 121 141 RS1061170 3 34.46 64287 52 62 RS1061170 3 53.45 114 432 120 142 RS1061147 3 33.75 65 287 5262 RS1061147 1 34.82 160 383 28 234 RS1061170 1 23.27 127 224 14 100RS1061170 1 26.19 158 388 33 229 RS1061147 1 23.11 127 225 14 100RS547154 1 25.84 501 47 212 57 INDELTT 3 12.22 268 70 69 41 RS547154 220.63 43 505 50 219 RS9332739 1 9.31 334 19 98 16 INDELTT 3 20.56 413143 158 111 RS4151667 1 8.59 335 20 98 16 INDELTT 1 18.21 7 549 18 251INDELTT 1 8.29 6 332 8 102 RS4151667 1 11.85 532 18 245 24 RS9332739 27.72 19 334 15 99 RS2072633 3 11.61 56 485 51 218 RS4151667 2 7.07 20335 15 99 RS9332739 1 10.86 527 19 243 24 INDELTT 2 5.99 64 274 33 77RS4151667 2 10.58 18 532 23 246 RS547154 1 2.49 304 44 92 21 RS9332739 29.65 19 527 23 244 RS547154 2 2.06 43 305 20 93 INDELTT 2 9.24 136 42093 176 RS1048709 2 1.86 103 250 41 73 RS1061170 2 5.23 274 272 109 153RS1061170 2 0.42 160 191 48 66 RS1061147 2 3.62 273 270 113 149RS1061147 2 0.39 160 192 48 66 RS3753396 3 3.48 8 541 9 250 RS1048709 10.31 230 123 71 43 RS2072633 1 1.66 245 296 109 160 RS3753396 1 0.15 25894 80 32 RS3753396 1 1.61 403 146 179 80 RS2072633 1 0.08 121 233 36 74RS2072633 2 1.08 240 301 109 160 RS4151659 2 0.22 22 527 9 260 RS10487091 0.02 412 129 202 65

TABLE 4 Columbia and Iowa Side-By-Side Chi Square Yates StatisticsColumbia Chi - Square Yates Iowa - Chi Square Yates Case Case ControlControl Case Case Control Control SNP Category Score True False TrueFalse SNP Category Score True False True False RS1061147 3 56.79 110 433121 141 RS1061170 3 33.01 64 287 52 62 RS1061170 3 52.25 114 432 120 142RS1061147 3 32.32 65 287 52 62 RS1061147 1 33.78 160 383 28 234RS1061170 1 22.15 127 224 14 100 RS1061170 1 25.30 158 388 33 229RS1061147 1 22.00 127 225 14 100 RS547154 1 24.72 501 47 212 57 INDELTT3 11.34 268 70 69 41 INDELTT 3 19.83 413 143 158 111 RS9332739 1 8.10334 19 98 16 RS547154 2 19.58 43 505 50 219 RS4151667 1 7.45 335 20 9816 INDELTT 1 16.41 7 549 18 251 RS9332739 2 6.61 19 334 15 99 RS20726333 10.87 56 485 51 218 INDELTT 1 6.57 6 332 8 102 RS4151667 1 10.72 53218 245 24 RS4151667 2 6.03 20 335 15 99 RS9332739 1 9.79 527 19 243 24INDELTT 2 5.36 64 274 33 77 RS4151667 2 9.50 18 532 23 246 RS1048709 32.13 20 333 2 112 INDELTT 2 8.75 136 420 93 176 RS547154 1 2.02 304 4492 21 RS9332739 2 8.63 19 527 23 244 RS547154 2 1.64 43 305 20 93RS1061170 2 4.89 274 272 109 153 RS1048709 2 1.56 103 250 41 73 RS5471543 3.46 4 544 7 262 RS4151659 1 1.21 343 12 114 1 RS1061147 2 3.34 273270 113 149 RS4151659 2 1.21 12 343 1 114 RS3753396 3 2.57 8 541 9 250RS1061170 2 0.29 160 191 48 66 RS2072633 1 1.47 245 296 109 160RS1061147 2 0.27 160 192 48 66 RS3753396 1 1.40 403 146 179 80 RS10487091 0.20 230 123 71 43 RS2072633 2 0.93 240 301 109 160 RS3753396 1 0.07258 94 80 32 RS4151659 2 0.07 22 527 9 260 RS2072633 1 0.03 121 233 3674 RS1048709 1 0.00 412 129 202 65 RS1061170 3 33.01 64 287 52 62

TABLE 5 Columbia and Iowa Side-By-Side Fishers Exact StatisticsColumbia - Fishers Exact Iowa - Fishers Exact Case Case Control ControlCase Case Control Control SNP Category p-Value True False True False SNPCategory p-Value True False True False RS1061147 3 1.11E−13 110 433 121141 RS1061170 3 1.56E−08 64 287 52 62 RS1061170 3 5.32E−13 114 432 120142 RS1061147 3 2.13E−08 65 287 52 62 RS1061147 1 5.33E−10 160 383 28234 RS1061170 1 3.23E−07 127 224 14 100 RS1061170 1 8.67E−08 158 388 33229 RS1061147 1 3.52E−07 127 225 14 100 RS547154 1 6.79E−07 501 47 21257 INDELTT 3 5.12E−04 268 70 69 41 INDELTT 3 5.28E−06 413 143 158 111RS9332739 1 0.0034399 334 19 98 16 RS547154 2 8.45E−06 43 505 50 219RS4151667 1 0.0046824 335 20 98 16 INDELTT 1 4.89E−05 7 649 18 251RS9332739 2 0.0070934 19 334 15 99 RS2072633 3 6.15E−04 56 485 51 218INDELTT 1 0.0082008 6 332 8 102 RS4151667 1 7.59E−04 532 18 245 24RS4151667 2 0.0094281 20 335 15 99 RS9332739 1 0.001202 527 19 243 24INDELTT 2 0.0116306 64 274 33 77 RS4151667 2 0.001399 18 532 23 246RS1048709 3 0.0636773 20 333 2 112 INDELTT 2 0.001690 136 420 93 176RS547154 1 0.0800174 304 44 92 21 RS9332739 2 0.002166 19 527 23 244RS547154 2 0.1022408 43 305 20 93 RS1061170 2 0.013402 274 272 109 153RS1048709 2 0.1067809 103 250 41 73 RS1061147 2 0.033779 273 270 113 149RS4151659 1 0.1321014 343 12 114 1 RS547154 3 0.035149 4 544 7 262RS4151659 2 0.1321014 12 343 1 114 RS3753396 3 0.058108 8 541 9 250RS4151667 3 0.2430704 0 355 1 113 RS2072633 1 0.112503 245 296 109 160RS9332739 3 0.2441113 0 353 1 113 RS3753396 1 0.118293 403 146 179 80RS1061170 2 0.2949213 160 191 48 66 RS2072633 2 0.167401 240 301 109 160RS1061147 2 0.3032103 160 192 48 66 RS9332739 3 0.328413 0 546 1 266RS1048709 1 0.3265887 230 123 71 43 RS4151667 3 0.328449 0 550 1 268RS3753396 1 0.3921321 258 94 80 32 RS4151659 2 0.401117 22 527 9 260RS2072633 1 0.4366061 121 233 36 74 RS1048709 1 0.470495 412 129 202 65RS1061170 3 1.56E−08 64 287 52 62

TABLE 6 Columbia and Iowa Side-By-Side Odds Ratio Statistics Columbia -Odds Ratio Iowa - Odds Ratio Case Case Control Control Case Case ControlControl SNP Category Score True False True False SNP Category Score TrueFalse True False RS1061147 1 3.491 160 383 28 234 RS1061170 1 4.050 127224 14 100 RS4151667 1 2.895 532 18 245 24 RS1061147 1 4.032 127 225 14100 RS547154 1 2.866 501 47 212 57 RS4151659 2 3.988 12 343 1 114RS1061170 1 2.826 158 388 33 229 RS1048709 3 3.363 20 333 2 112RS9332739 1 2.739 527 19 243 24 RS3332739 1 2.870 334 19 98 16 INDELTT 32.029 413 143 158 111 RS4151667 1 2.735 335 20 98 16 RS1061170 2 1.414274 272 109 153 INDELTT 3 2.275 268 70 69 41 RS1061147 2 1.333 273 270113 149 RS547154 1 1.577 304 44 92 21 RS3753396 1 1.234 403 146 179 80RS1061170 2 1.152 160 191 48 66 RS2072633 1 1.215 245 296 109 160RS1061147 2 1.146 160 192 48 66 RS4151659 2 1.206 22 527 9 250 RS10487091 1.132 230 123 71 43 RS2072633 2 1.170 240 301 109 150 RS3753396 11.098 258 94 80 32 RS1048709 1 1.028 412 129 202 65 RS2072633 1 1.067121 233 36 74 RS1048709 2 1.005 122 419 60 207 RS1048709 2 0.734 103 25041 73 INDELTT 2 0.613 136 420 93 176 RS547154 2 0.656 43 305 20 93RS2072633 3 0.494 56 485 51 218 INDELTT 2 0.545 64 274 33 77 RS3753396 30.411 8 541 9 250 RS4151667 2 0.394 20 335 15 99 RS9332739 2 0.382 19527 23 244 RS9332739 2 0.375 19 334 15 99 RS547154 2 0.373 43 505 50 219RS1061147 3 0.270 65 287 52 62 RS4151687 2 0.362 18 532 23 246 RS10611703 0.266 64 287 52 62 RS1061170 3 0.312 114 432 120 142 RS4151659 1 0.251343 12 114 1 RS1061147 3 0.296 110 433 121 141 INDELTT 1 0.230 6 332 8102 RS547154 3 0.275 4 544 7 262 INDELTT 1 0.178 7 549 18 251

TABLE 7 Combined Cohorts Chi Square Statistics Combined Cohorts - ChiSquare Case Case Control Control SNP Category Score True False TrueFalse RS1061170 3 89.16 178 719 172 204 RS1061170 1 51.05 285 612 47 329INDELTT 3 34.49 681 213 227 152 INDELTT 1 26.19 13 881 26 353 RS547154 124.58 805 91 304 78 RS547154 2 19.03 86 810 70 312 RS4151667 1 18.45 86738 343 40 RS9332739 1 18.39 861 38 341 40 INDELTT 2 16.52 200 694 126253 RS4151667 2 15.87 38 867 38 345 RS9332739 2 15.82 38 861 38 343RS2072633 3 7.39 113 782 70 309 RS547154 3 6.28 5 891 8 374 RS1061170 24.68 434 463 157 219 RS3753396 3 4.13 15 886 13 358 RS1061147 2 3.29 433462 161 215 RS3753396 1 1.66 661 240 259 112 RS1048709 3 1.44 27 867 7374 RS2072633 2 1.11 416 479 164 215 RS4151659 1 1.09 870 34 374 10RS4151659 2 1.09 34 870 10 374 RS2072633 1 0.77 366 529 145 234

TABLE 8 Combined Cohorts Chi Square Yates Statistics Combined Cohorts -Chi Square Yates Case Case Control Control SNP Category Score True FalseTrue False RS1061170 3 87.86 178 719 172 204 RS1061170 1 50.05 285 61247 329 INDELTT 3 33.70 681 213 227 152 INDELTT 1 24.40 13 881 26 353RS547154 1 23.69 805 91 304 78 RS547154 2 18.23 86 810 70 312 RS41516671 17.37 867 38 343 40 RS9332739 1 17.31 861 38 341 40 INDELTT 2 15.95200 694 126 253 RS4151667 2 14.86 38 867 38 345 RS9332739 2 14.81 38 86138 343 RS2072633 3 6.92 113 782 70 309 RS547154 3 4.84 5 891 8 374RS1061170 2 4.42 434 463 157 219 RS3753396 3 3.32 15 886 13 358RS1061147 2 3.07 433 462 161 215 RS3753396 1 1.48 661 240 259 112RS1048709 3 1.02 27 867 1 374 RS2072633 2 0.98 416 479 164 215 RS41516591 0.77 870 34 374 10 RS4151659 2 0.77 34 870 10 374 RS2072633 1 0.66 366529 145 234

TABLE 9 Combined Cohorts Fishers Exact Statistic Combined Cohorts -Fishers Exact Case Case Control Control SNP Category p-Value True FalseTrue False RS1061170 3 4.81E−20 178 719 172 204 RS1061170 1 1.08E−13 285612 47 329 INDELTT 3 5.56E−09 681 213 227 152 RS547154 1 1.17E−06 805 91304 78 INDELTT 1 1.45E−06 13 881 26 353 RS547154 2 1.68E−05 86 810 70312 RS4151667 1 3.14E−05 867 38 343 40 RS9332739 1 3.21E−05 861 38 34140 INDELTT 2 4.10E−05 200 694 126 253 RS4151667 2 1.04E−04 38 867 38 345RS9332739 2 1.06E−04 38 861 38 343 RS2072633 3 0.0048033 113 782 70 309RS547154 3 0.0173168 5 891 8 374 RS1061170 2 0.0176623 434 463 157 219RS3753396 3 0.0379421 15 886 13 358 RS1061147 2 0.0397575 433 462 161215 RS4151667 3 0.0882608 0 905 2 381

TABLE 10 Combined Cohorts Odds Ratio Statistics Combined Cohorts - OddsRatio Case Case Control Control SNP Category Score True False True FalseRS1061170 1 3.260 285 612 47 329 RS4151667 1 2.661 867 38 343 40RS9332739 1 2.658 861 38 341 40 RS547154 1 2.270 805 91 304 78 INDELTT 32.141 681 213 227 152 RS1048709 3 1.664 27 867 7 374 RS4151659 2 1.46234 870 10 374 RS1061170 2 1.308 434 463 157 219 RS1061147 2 1.252 433462 161 215 RS3753396 1 1.191 661 240 259 112 RS2072633 2 1.139 416 479164 215 RS2072633 1 1.117 366 529 145 234 RS1048709 1 1.008 642 252 273108 RS4151659 1 0.684 870 34 374 10 RS2072633 3 0.638 113 782 70 309INDELTT 2 0.579 200 694 126 253 RS547154 2 0.473 86 810 70 312 RS37533963 0.466 15 886 13 358 RS9332739 2 0.398 38 861 38 343 RS4151667 2 0.39838 867 38 345 RS1061170 3 0.294 178 719 172 204 RS547154 3 0.262 5 891 8374 INDELTT 1 0.200 13 881 26 353 RS1061170 1 3.260 285 612 47 329

Clearly many of these SNP's were highly statistically significant inboth cohorts. This was mainly due to the a priori information that ledto their selection for this study. Particularly notable was RS1061170 as3(BB a.k.a T/T) with fishers p<4.81E-20, indicating its strong potentialas a protective genotype. In the side by side comparisons it becomesclear that there are some differences between the Iowa and Columbiacohorts.

To further assess which SNP's/Genotypes are protective or contributive,Fishers was used as a basis for genotype penetration variance. To dothis the genotype percentage was calculated for cases and controls andthe absolute value of their difference was calculated. Table 11 providesthis information and is sorted in order of highest frequency difference.

TABLE 11 Genotype Penetration Variance Causative/ SNP Genotype Case %Control % Difference Protective RS1061170 3 19.84% 45.74% 25.90% PRS1061170 1 31.77% 12.50% 19.27% C INDELTT 3 76.17% 59.89% 16.28% CINDELTT 2 22.37% 33.25% 10.87% P RS547154 1 89.84% 79.58% 10.26% CRS547154 2 9.60% 18.32% 8.73% P RS1061170 2 48.38% 41.76% 6.63% CRS9332739 1 95.77% 89.50% 6.27% C RS4151667 1 95.80% 89.56% 6.24% CRS2072633 3 12.63% 18.47% 5.84% P RS9332739 2 4.23% 9.97% 5.75% PRS4151667 2 4.20% 9.92% 5.72% P RS1061147 2 48.38% 42.82% 5.56% CINDELTT 1 1.45% 6.86% 5.41% P

Hypothesized Protective Models: In this study, preliminary workindicated possible combinations of SNP's that would protect from AMD. Totest this hypothesis, a hand-built model was constructed per an NCIspecification. The model graphic appears in FIG. 2A. This model can bewritten as an IF statement as follows:

IF RS547154 is G/A and RS1061170 is T/T or

RS547154 is G/A and RS1061170 is C/C or

RS4151667 is T/A and RS1061170 is C/T or

RS4151667 is T/A and RS1061170 is C/C

THEN The Person is protected from AMD.

Therefore, this model gives four possible combinations of genotypes thatwould protect from AMD (combinations that result in the model being“true”):

-   -   1. RS547154 as G/A AND RS1061170 as T/T        -   Controls 8.82%, Cases 5.45%    -   2. RS547154 as G/A AND RS1061170 as C/C        -   Controls 7.22%, Cases 1.93%    -   3. RS4151667 as T/A AND RS1061170 as C/T        -   Controls 4.8%, Cases 2.02%    -   4. RS4151667 as T/A AND RS1061170 as C/C        -   Controls 3.47%, Cases 0.79%            When this model was applied against the samples, the            following resulted for the combined Iowa and Columbia            cohorts:

794 cases did not have the protective factors (the model was false) . .. 90.12%

88 controls did have the protective factors (the model was true) . . .23.52%

87 of the cases did have protective factors . . . 9.88%

286 of the controls did not have the protective factors . . . 76.47

NOTE: statistics on all models were calculated by applying the modelagainst the combined cohorts and tracking its True Positive (TP), FalseNegative (FN), False Postive (FP) and True Negative (TN) rates. Thesenumbers were then placed in a 2×2 tables from which all statistics weregenerated. Table 12 shows the statistics for each cohort.

TABLE 12 NCI Hypothesized Protective Model Statistics Iowa & ColumbiaColumbia Iowa Score Value Score Value Score Value Fishers P = 7.902e−10P = 4.284e−8 P = 0.00237 Odds Ratio 2.8081 3.2703 2.3608 Std Error:0.4666 95% CI: 2.027 < O.R. < 3.889 Inverse OR: .36 Chi Square 40.791 P= 4.473E−11 32.928 P = 9.563E−9 10.276 P = 0.0013 Yates 39.661 P =3.020E−10 31.659 P = 1.837E−8 9.334 P = 0.0022

Genetic Algorithm (GA) Derived Model(s): In an attempt to see if the GAModule could find better combinations of SNP's, the GA module was taskedto learn models on the inverted data (to learn protective models).Various parameter settings were utilized including:

Model Type: indicates whether the model can have and's and or's, and'sonly, or or's only.

Model Size: indicates an upper limit for how many SNP's can be in themodels

GA Specific Parameters: such as generations, number of models, etc.

Generally speaking, AND-only models of small size are preferable. Thereasons for this are two-fold. First, an AND-only model requires thatall its SNP's be true for the model to be true, and its interpretationis therefore unambiguous, whereas models with OR's do not require allSNP's to be present for the model to be true, which introduces a levelof uncertainty. Secondly, smaller models are easier to interpret due tohaving fewer SNP's to assess.

Exemplar utilizes a two-third, one-third validation method to avoidover-fitting to the input data with the desired outcome of having moregenerally applicable results.

Further, given that there were two distinct study groups, this allowedmodels to be built only on the Columbia data and the resultant models tobe tested against the Iowa cohort. If the model(s) performance isconsistent across the two groups, this is a strong indication of thegeneral applicability of the model(s). This would be particularlychallenging given the interesting statistical differences between thetwo groups as discussed in the above statistics section. Given suchvariance, it was highly possible that the GA would find high fitnessmodels on the Columbia data, but would perform poorly on the Iowa data.

The GA did find a model that performed well across Columbia, Iowa andthe combined dataset. The models performance on the Columbia data wassuperior to the Iowa data, as would be expected given that the model wastrained on the Columbia data. Nonetheless, the model performance isnotable given that the GA had no prior knowledge of the Iowa data andthere was significant statistical difference between key SNP's betweenthe two cohorts. The resultant best model outperformed the hand builthypothesized model on the combined cohorts (RS1061170). Initially, themodel included an additional section with “INDELTT is homozygous ANDRS547154 is GG,” but upon further inspection, this section wasdetermined to be extraneous to model interpretation and was thereforeeliminated to produce the model with identical performance. A graphic ofthe final model may be found in FIG. 2C.

The GA specific. Options for this task were as follows:

Models: 1500—this is the number of models the GA built internally as afoundation for evolving new generations of models

Iterations: 25—this is the number of evolutionary iterations the modelswent through to find a solution

Model Size: 5—this allowed for the models to have a maximum of 16genotypes to appear in a single model

Model Type: AND/OR's—this let the GA build models that could use bothand's and or's

This model can be written as an IF statement as follows:

-   -   IF RS1048709 is G/G and RS1061170 is T/T or    -   RS547154 is G/A or    -   RS4151667 is T/A or    -   INDELTT is +/+    -   THEN The person is protected from AMD.

This model gives four possible individual or combinations of genotypesthat would protect from AMD (combinations resulting in the model being“true”):

-   -   1. RS1048709 as G/G and RS1061170 as T/T        -   Occurred in 14.20% cases, 34.31% controls    -   2. RS547154 as G/A        -   Occurred in 9.6% cases, 18.32% controls    -   3. RS4151667 as T/A        -   Occurred in 4.2% cases, 9.92% controls    -   4. INDELTT as +/+        -   Occurred in 1.45% cases, 6.86% controls

When this model was applied against the samples, the following resultedfor the combined Iowa and Columbia cohorts:

682 of the cases did not have the protective factors (74.78%), 230 did.

204 of the controls had the protective factors (55.74%), 162 did not.

Table 13 shows the statistics for each cohort. The GA performed wellacross the board. Overall, those with the protective factors describedby the model were 3.6581 times less likely to get AMD than those withoutthe protective factors.

TABLE 13 Genetic Algorithm Derived Model Statistics Iowa & ColumbiaColumbia Iowa Score Value Score Value Score Value Fishers P = 1.689e−23P = 2.974e−22 P = 0.0000749 Odds Ratio 3.6581 4.727 2.2512 Std Error:0.4792 95% CI 2.8298 < OR < 4.7288 Inverse OR: .27 Chi Square 103.128 P= 3.141E−24 96.451 P = 9.148E−23 13.17 P = 0.00028 Yates 101.801 P =6.138E−24 94.886 P = 2.016E−22 12.34 P = 0.00044

Given the clear statistical difference in several key SNP's between thetwo cohorts, finding a single model that would more accurately predictoutcomes/protection was a challenge for both humans and machine learningalike. The hand built model performed admirably, and interestinglyidentified the identical heterozygous pairing of SNP's that the GA did(RS547154 as AB, RS4151667 as AB), including the same OR'ing together ofthose SNP's.

Despite the difficulty of the task, the GA performed well on the out ofsample test (Fishers Iowa p<0.0000749). The GA outperformed the handbuilt model on all cohorts. Nonetheless, the hand built model does avery adequate job of predicting outcomes. Other variants of this modelwere tested but were unable to improve on its performance. Given themany possible combinations of SNP's/Genotypes/logical operators, this isto be expected and hence the value of the machine learning approachwhich can test 10's of thousands of model variations within a reasonabletimeframe.

Given the highly statistical significance of the single SNP (RS1061170as T/T: x2=97.25), one might conclude that by itself it can predict riskfor AMD. In order to test whether the single SNP or the multi-locimodels would have potential suitability for prediction of protection inthe general population, permutation testing was conducted on the data.The Permutation testing showed that the single SNP was much more likelyto produce a statistically significant result with random mixing of thedata than either the GA or hand built models with a mean chi squarescore of 4.8153 over 3000 permutations versus, 3.3157 for the GA and1.2207 for the hand built. On the Odds Ration evaluation, the single SNPhad 625 permutations with an OR>1.5 versus 133 for the GA model and 46for the hand built model. The hand built model simply represents ofcombination of genotypes that is rarely occurring in any sample. Onbalance, the GA model exhibited the best true case control performanceand permutation results.

When the model statistics, ROC plots and permutation tests are looked atcollectively, it appears that the multi-loci model approach to predictoutcomes is superior to any single loci across diverse groups.Conclusion

In conclusion, this study extends and refines the role of thealternative complement pathway in the pathobiology of AMD and furtherstrengthens the proposed model that infection and/or inflammation play amajor role in this common disease (Hageman et al., 2005, supra; Andersonet al., 2002, supra; Hageman et al., 2001, supra).

Example 3 Administration of Protective BF or C2 Protein to PreventDevelopment of AMD

A subject presents with signs and/or symptoms of AMD, including drusen.The subject tests negative for the protective polymorphisms R32Q and L9Hin BF, and IVS 10 and E318D in C2. It is recommended that the subject betreated with protective BF protein (having the R32Q polymorphism). Thesubject is administered intravenously an amount of protective BF inaqueous saline sufficient to bring the serum concentration of BF tobetween 9 and 31 mg/dL, once a month for six months. At this time, thesubject is monitored for drusen as well as the presence of other signsand/or symptoms of AMD. If the signs and/or symptoms of AMD have notprogressed, administration of protective BF is continued, once a monthindefinitely, with monitoring of the clinical status of the patient asfrequently as indicated, but at least once every six months.

In other clinical regimens, the protective BF protein is administeredintranasally once each day to provide more sustained exposure to theprotective effects of the protein.

All publications and patent applications mentioned in the specificationare indicative of the level of skill of those skilled in the art towhich this invention pertains. All publications and patent applicationsare herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if eachindividual publication or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of ourinvention may be applied, it should be recognized that the illustratedembodiment is only a preferred example of the invention and should notbe taken as a limitation on the scope of the invention. Rather, thescope of the invention is defined by the following claims. We thereforeclaim as our invention all that comes within the scope and spirit ofthese claims.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A kit for assessing the risk of developmentof, or likely progression of, disease characterized by alternativecomplement cascade disregulation, including macular degeneration, in ahuman subject, the kit comprising reagents for detecting in a samplefrom the subject one or more of the polymorphisms or one or more of theallelic variants: a) A or G at rs641153 of the complement factor B (BF)gene, or R or Q at position 32 of the BF protein; b) A or T at rs4151667of the BF gene, or L or H at position 9 of the BF protein; c) G or T atrs547154 of the C2 gene; and, d) C or G at rs9332379 of the C2 gene, orE or D at position 318 of the C2 protein, wherein said reagents comprisean oligonucleotide probe that detects a said polymorphism, wherein saidprobe: (i) binds to one but not the other of (a)CCACTCCATGGTCTTTGGCCCAGCCCCAGGGATCCTGCTCTCT (SEQ ID NO:1) and (b)CCACTCCATGGTCTTTGGCCCGGCCCCAGGGATCCTGCTCTCT (SEQ ID NO:1), or binds toone but not the other of the complements of (a) and (b); (ii) binds toone but not the other of (c)ATGGGGAGCAATCTCAGCCCCCAACACTGCCTGATGCCCTTTATCTTGGGC (SEQ ID NO:2) and(d) ATGGGGAGCAATCTCAGCCCCCAACTCTGCCTGATGCCCTTTATCTTGGGC (SEQ ID NO:2);or binds to one but not the other of the complements of (c) and (d);(iii) binds to one but not the other of (e)GAGGAGCCCGCCAGAGGCCCGTGTTGGGAACCTGGACACAGTGCCC (SEQ ID NO:3) and (f)GAGGAGCCCGCCAGAGGCCCGTRTTGGGAACCTGGACACAGTGCCC (SEQ ID NO:3), or bindsto one but not the other of the complements of (e) and (f); or (iv)binds to one but not the other of (g)ACGACAACTCCCGGGATATGACTGACGTGATCAGCAGCCTGGAAAATGCCA (SEQ ID NO:4) and(h) ACGACAACTCCCGGGATATGACTGAGGTGATCAGCAGCCTGGAAAATGCCA (SEQ ID NO:4);or binds to one but not the other of the complements of (g) and (h),wherein said oligonucleotide probe is immobilized on a solid support. 2.A kit for assessing the risk of development of or likely progression of,disease characterized by alternative complement cascade disregulation,including macular degeneration, in a human subject, the kit comprisingreagents for detecting in a sample from the subject one or more of thepolymorphisms or one or more of the allelic variants: a) A or G atrs641153 of the complement factor B (BF) gene, or R or Q at position 32of the BF protein; b) A or T at rs4151667 of the BF gene, or L or H atposition 9 of the BF protein; c) G or T at rs547154 of the C2 gene; and,d) C or G at rs9332379 of the C2 gene, or E or D at position 318 of theC2 protein, wherein said reagents are allelic variant-distinguishingoligonucleotides or variant-specific specific binding proteins, said kitfurther comprising: (i) a monoclonal antibody that recognizes and bindsspecifically to a BF protein comprising H at position 9 and does notbind to wild type BF protein comprising L at position; or (ii) amonoclonal antibody that recognizes and binds specifically to a BFprotein comprising Q at position 32 and does not bind to wild-type BFcomprising at R position 32; or (iii) a monoclonal antibody thatrecognizes and binds specifically to a C2 protein comprising D atposition 318, and does not bind to wild-type C2 comprising E at position318; or (iv) a combination of both (i) and (ii), both (i) and (iii) orboth (ii) or (iii); or (v) a combination of (i), (ii) and (iii).
 3. Amicroarray comprising oligonucleotide probes capable of hybridizingunder high stringency conditions to one or more nucleic acid moleculeshaving a protective polymorphism selected from the group consisting of:a) R32Q in BF (rs641153); b) L9H in BF (rs4151667); c) IVS 10 in C2(rs547154); and, d) E318D in C2 (rs9332739), wherein said arraycomprises immobilized probes that specifically bind one or more of: (i)CCACTCCATGGTCTTTGGCCCAGCCCCAGGGATCCTGCTCTCT (SEQ ID NO:1); (ii)CCACTCCATGGTCTTTGGCCCGGCCCCAGGGATCCTGCTCTCT (SEQ ID NO:1); (iii)ATGGGGAGCAATCTCAGCCCCCAACACTGCCTGATGCCCTTTATCTTGGGC (SEQ ID NO:2); (iv)ATGGGGAGCAATCTCAGCCCCCAACTCTGCCTGATGCCCTTTATCTTGGGC (SEQ ID NO:2); (v)GAGGAGCCCGCCAGAGGCCCGTGTTGGGAACCTGGACACAGTGCCC (SEQ ID NO:3) and (vi)GAGGAGCCCGCCAGAGGCCCGTRTTGGGAACCTGGACACAGTGCCC (SEQ ID NO:3); (vii)ACGACAACTCCCGGGATATGACTGACGTGATCAGCAGCCTGGAAAATGCCA (SEQ ID NO:4) and(viii) ACGACAACTCCCGGGATATGACTGAGGTGATCAGCAGCCTGGAAAATGCCA (SEQ IDNO:4); and/or or the complements of (i)-(viii).
 4. The microarray ofclaim 3, further comprising oligonucleotide probes capable ofhybridizing under high stringency conditions to one or more nucleic acidmolecules having a polymorphism selected from the group consisting of:a) the delTT polymorphism in CFH; b) the R15OR polymorphism in BF; and,c) the Y402H polymorphism in CFH.
 5. The kit of claim 1 comprisingreagents for detecting two or more of said C2 gene polymorphisms.
 6. Thekit of claim 2 comprising reagents for detecting two or more of said BFprotein allelic variants.
 7. The kit of claim 2, comprising reagents fordetecting said C2 protein allelic variants.
 8. The kit of claim 2comprising reagents for detecting in a sample from the subject one ormore of the polymorphisms or one or more of the allelic variants: a)delTT in the complement factor H (CFH) gene; and b) C or T at rs1061170of the CFH gene, or Y or H at position 402 of the CFH protein.